INTRODUCTION

Design Objectives Loads

Analysis is performed on an idealized structure . 1.Determinate Structures.

2. Indeterminate Structures.
3. Matrix Structural Analysis 4. Finite Element Analysis

For reinforced concrete structures, the design objectives of the structural engineer typically consist of the following: 1. To configure a workable and economical structural system. This involves the selection of the appropriate structural types and laying out the locations and arrangement of structural elements such as columns and beams. 2. To select structural dimensions, depth and width, of individual members, and the concrete cover. 3. To determine the required reinforcement, both longitudinal and transverse. 4. Detailing of reinforcement such as development lengths, hooks, and bends. 5. To satisfy serviceability requirements such as deflections and crack widths

Materials Mechanics of materials and structures 1. Steel Structures. 2. Wood Structures. 3. Bricks and Stones. 4. Concrete Structures. 5. Composite Structures 6. Reinforced Concrete Structures. 7. Prestressed Concrete Structures

Design The task of the structural engineer is to design a structure which satisfies the needs of the client and the user. Specifically the structure should be safe, economical to build and maintain, and aesthetically pleasing. But what does the design process involve? Design is a word that means different things to different people. In dictionaries the word is described as a mental plan, preliminary sketch, pattern, construction, plot or invention. Even among those closely involved with the built environment there are considerable differences in interpretation. Architects, for example, may interpret design as being the production of drawings and models to show what a new building will actually look like.

To civil and structural engineers, however, design is taken to mean the entire planning process
for a new building structure, bridge, tunnel, road, etc., from outline concepts and feasibility studies through mathematical calculations to working drawings which could show every last nut and bolt in the project. Together with the drawings there will be bills of quantities, a specification and a contract, which will form the necessary legal and organizational framework within which a contractor, under the supervision of engineers and architects, can construct the scheme.

Structural Design

There are many inputs into the engineering design process as illustrated by Fig. 1. client brief 2. experience 3. imagination 4. a site investigation 5. model and laboratory tests 6. economic factors 7. environmental factors

Allowable Stress Design

The design concept is based on the elastic theory assuming a straight line stress distribution along the depth of the concrete section under service loads. The members are proportioned on the basis of certain allowable stresses in concrete and steel. The allowable stresses are fractions of the crushing strength of concrete and yield strength of steel. This method has been deleted from the ACI Code. The application of this approach is still used in the design of prestressed concrete members under service load conditions

Ultimate/Unified Strength Design

The unified design method (UDM) is based on the strength of structural members assuming a failure condition, whether due to the crushing of the concrete or to the yield of the reinforcing steel bars. Although there is some additional strength in the bars after yielding (due to strain hardening), this additional strength is not considered in the analysis of reinforced concrete members. In this approach, the actual loads, or working loads, are multiplied by load factors to obtain the factored design loads. The load factors represent a high percentage of the factor for safety required in the design

Alternative Design Method

A second approach for the design of reinforced and prestressed concrete flexural and compression members is called the strength design method, or the alternative provisions (ADM), as introduced in the ACI Code, Appendix B. When this method is used in the design, the designer must adhere to all sections of Appendixes Band C and substitute accordingly for the corresponding sections of the Code. Reinforcement limits, strength reduction factors, load factors, and moment redistribution are affected. The provisions of this method satisfy the Code and are equally acceptable

Strut and Tie Method

An other approach for the design of concrete members is called the strut and tie method (STM). The provisions of this method are introduced in the ACI Code, Appendix A. It applies effectively in regions of discontinuity such as support and load applications on beams. Consequently, the structural element is divided into segments and then analyzed using the truss analogy approach, where the concrete resists compression forces as a strut, while the steel reinforcement resists tensile forces as a tie.

Loads
Limit State Design
Limit state design is a further step in the strength design method. It indicates the state of the member in which it ceases to meet the service requirements such as losing its ability to withstand external loads, or suffering excessive deformation, cracking, or local damage. According to the limit state design, reinforced concrete members have to be analyzed with regard to three limiting states: 1. Load carrying capacity (safety, stability, and durability) 2. Deformation (deflections, vibrations, and impact) 3. The formation of cracks. The aim of this analysis is to ensure that no limiting state will appear in the structural member during its service life Loads are those forces for which a given structure should be proportioned. In general, loads may be classified as dead or live Dead loads include the weight of the structure (its self-weight) and any permanent material placed on the structure, such as tiles, roofing materials, and walls. Dead loads can be determined with a high degree of accuracy from the dimensions of the elements and the unit weight of materials. Live loads are all other loads that are not dead loads. They may be steady or unsteady or movable or moving; they may be applied slowly, suddenly, vertically, or laterally, and their magnitudes may fluctuate with time.

Type of Live Loads

Occupancy loads caused by the weight of the people, furniture, and goods Forces resulting from wind action and temperature changes The weight of snow if accumulation is probable The pressure of liquids or earth on retaining structures The weight of traffic on a bridge Dynamic forces resulting from moving loads (impact), earthquakes, or blast loading

Live loads for highway bridges are specified by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) in its LRFD Bridge Design Specifications For railway bridges, the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA) has published the Manual of Railway Engineering , which specifies traffic load

Environmental loads consist mainly of snow loads, wind pressure and suction, earthquake loads (i.e., inertia forces caused by earthquake motions), soil pressures on subsurface portions of structures, loads from possible ponding of rainwater on flat surfaces, and forces caused by temperature differentials. Like live loads, environmental loads at any given time are uncertain in both magnitude and distribution. ASCE manual contains much information on environmental loads, which is often modified locally depending, for instance, on local climatic or seismic conditions.

Occupancy Loads
The minimum live loads for which the floors and roof of a building should be designed are usually specified in the building code that governs at the site of construction. Representative values of minimum live loads to be used in a wide variety of buildings are found in Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures of American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). The table gives uniformly distributed live loads for various types of occupancies; these include impact provisions where necessary. These loads are expected maxima and considerably exceed average values. In addition to these uniformly distributed loads, it is recommended that as an alternative to the uniform load floors be designed to support safely certain concentrated loads if these produce a greater stress. Certain reductions are often permitted in live loads for members supporting large areas, on the premise that it is not likely that the entire area would be fully loaded at one time. Tabulated live loads cannot always be used. The type of occupancy should be considered and the probable loads computed as accurately as possible. Warehouses for heavy storage may be designed for loads as high as 500 psf or more; unusually heavy operations in manufacturing buildings may require an increase in the 250 psf value specified in Table ; special provisions must be made for all definitely located heavy concentrated loads.

For occupancies or uses not designated in this book's chapter4, the live load shall be determined in accordance with a method approved by the authority having jurisdiction.

Simple Houses
For structural members in one and two-family dwellings supporting more than one floor load, the following floor live load reduction shall be permitted as an alternative to Eq. 4.7-1: L = 0.7 (Lo1 + Lo2 + )
Lo1, Lo2, are the unreduced floor live loads applicable to each of multiple supported story levels regardless of tributary area. The reduced floor live load effect, L, shall not be less than that produced by the effect of the largest unreduced floor live load on a given story level acting alone.

Heavy Live Loads Live loads that exceed 100 lb/ft2 shall not be reduced. EXCEPTION: Live loads for members supporting two or more floors shall be permitted to be reduced by 20 percent Limitations on One-Way Slabs The tributary area, At for one-way slabs shall not exceed an area defined by the slab span times a width normal to the span of 1.5 times the slab span. Seismic forces may be found for a particular structure by elastic or inelastic dynamic analysis, considering expected ground accelerations and the mass, stiffness, and damping characteristics of the construction. However, often the design is based on equivalent static forces . The base shear is found by considering such factors as location, type of structure and its occupancy, total dead load, and the particular soil condition. The total lateral force is distributed to floors over the entire height of the structure in such a way as to approximate the distribution of forces obtained from a dynamic analysis.

Design Criteria
In achieving the design objectives, there are four general design criteria of SAFE that must be satisfied: 1. Safety, strength, and stability. Structural systems and member must be designed with sufficient margin of safety against failure. 2. Aesthetics. Aesthetics include such considerations as shape, geometrical proportions, symmetry, surface texture, and articulation. These are especially important for structures of high visibility such as signature buildings and bridges. The structural engineer must work in close coordination with planners, architects, other design professionals, and the affected community in guiding them on the structural and construction consequences of decisions derived from aesthetical considerations. 3. Functional requirements. A structure must always be designed to serve its intended function as specified by the project requirements. Constructability is a major part of the functional requirement. A structural design must be practical and economical to build. 4. Economy. Structures must be designed and built within the target budget of the project. For reinforced concrete structures, economical design is usually not achieved by minimizing the amount of concrete and reinforcement quantities. A large part of the construction cost are the costs of labor, formwork, and false work. Therefore, designs that replicate member sizes and simplify reinforcement placement to result in easier and faster construction will usually result in being more economical than a design that achieves minimum material Quantities.

Design Loads
To serve its purpose, a structure must be safe against collapse and serviceable in use. Serviceability requires that deflections be adequately small; that cracks, if any, be kept to tolerable limits; that vibrations be minimized; etc. Safety requires that the strength of the structure be adequate for all loads that may foresee ably act on it. If the strength of a structure, built as designed, could be predicted accurately, and if the loads and their internal effects (moments, shears, axial forces) were known accurately, safety could be ensured by providing a carrying capacity just barely in excess of the known loads.

Uncertainty in Design
1. Actual loads may differ from those assumed. 2. Actual loads may be distributed in a manner different from that assumed. 3. The assumptions and simplifications inherent in any analysis may result in calculated load effects-moments, shears, etc.-different from those that, in fact, act in the structure. 4. The actual structural behavior may differ from that assumed, owing to imperfect knowledge. 5. Actual member dimensions may differ from those specified. 6. Reinforcement may not be in its proper position. 7. Actual material strength may be different from that specified.

Real Load = Design load x (1 + A ) Real Strength = Design Strength x (1 B ) For safety real load= real strength Design strength/design load = FOS=( 1+A)/(1-B)

Advantages of Strength Design 1. The derivation of the strength design expressions takes into account the nonlinear shape of the stressstrain diagram. When the resulting equations are applied, decidedly better estimates of load-carrying ability are obtained. 2. With strength design, a more consistent theory is used throughout the designs of reinforced concrete structures. For instance, with working-stress design the transformed-area or straightline method was used for beam design, and a strength design procedure was used for columns. 3. A more realistic factor of safety is used in strength design. The designer can certainly estimate the magnitudes of the dead loads that a structure will have to support more accurately than he or she can estimate the live and environmental loads. With working stress design, the same safety factor was used for dead, live, and environmental loads. This is not the case for strength design. For this reason, use of different load or safety factors in strength design for the different types of loads is a definite improvement. 4. A structure designed by the strength method will have a more uniform safety factor against collapse throughout. The strength method takes considerable advantage of higher strength steels, whereas working-stress design did so only partly. The result is better economy for strength design. 5. The strength method permits more flexible designs than did the working-stress method. For instance, the percentage of steel may be varied quite a bit. As a result, large sections may be used with small percentages of steel, or small sections may be used with large percentages of steel. Such variations were not the case in the relatively fixed working stress method. If the same amount of steel is used in strength design for a particular beam as would have been used with WSD, a smaller section will result. If the same size section is used as required by WSD, a smaller amount of steel will be required.