Chapter 9

Nervous Tissue

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

End of Chapter 9

Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in section 117 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without express permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Request for further information should be addressed to the Permission Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his/her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The Publishers assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of theses programs or from the use of the information herein.
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Structures of the Nervous System

Brain: neurons enclosed within skull Spinal cord: connects to brain and enclosed within spinal cavity Nerves: bundles of many axons of neurons

Cranial nerves (12 pairs) emerge from brain Spinal nerves (31 pairs) emerge from spinal cord

Ganglia: groups of neuron cell bodies located outside of brain and spinal cord Enteric plexuses: networks in digestive tract Sensory receptors: monitor changes in internal or external environments
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Structures of the Nervous System

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Functions of the Nervous System

Sensory receptors and sensory nerves

Carry information into brain and spinal cord Perception = awareness of sensory input Analyzing and storing information to help lead to appropriate responses Signals to muscles and glands (effectors)

Integration: information processing

Motor activity: efferent nerves

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Organization of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord All nervous system structures outside of the CNS

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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Histology of the Nervous System

Neurons

Can respond to stimuli and convert stimuli to electrical signals (nerve impulses) that travel along neurons

Neuroglia cells: support, nourish and protect neurons

Neuroglia critical for homeostasis of interstitial fluid around neurons

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Neuronal Structure

Cell body: nucleus, cytoplasm with typical organelles Dendrites: highly branched structures that carry impulses to the cell body Axon: conducts away from cell body toward another neuron, muscle or gland

Emerges at cone-shaped axon hillock

Axon terminals: contain synaptic vesicles that can release neurotransmitters

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Neuronal Structure

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Structural Classes of Neurons

Multipolar

Have several or many dendrites and one axon Most common type in brain and spinal cord Have one dendrite and one axon Example: in retina of eye and inner ear Have fused dendrite and axon Sensory neurons of spinal nerves

Bipolar

Unipolar

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Functional Classes of Neurons

Sensory (afferent)

Convey impulses into CAN (brain or spinal cord) Convey impulses from brain or spinal cord out through the PNS to effectors (muscles or glands) Most are within the CNS Transmit impulses between neurons, such as between sensory and motor neurons

Motor (efferent)

Interneurons (association neurons)

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Neuroglia

Cells smaller but much more numerous than neurons Can multiply and divide and fill in brain areas Gliomas: brain tumors derived from neuroglia Functions
Do not conduct nerve impulses Do support, nourish and protect neurons

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Neuroglia

Astrocytes: help form blood brain barrier Oligodendrocytes: produce myelin in CNS Microglia: protect CNS cells from disease Ependymal cells: form CSF in ventricles Schwann: produce myelin around PNS neurons; help to regenerate PNS axons Satellite cells: support neurons in PNS ganglia

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Myelination

Axons covered with a myelin sheath

Many layers of lipid and protein: insulates neurons Increases speed of nerve conduction Appears white (in white matter) Nodes are important for rapid signal conduction Multiple sclerosis Tay-Sachs

Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in the myelin

Some diseases destroy myelin:

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Collections of Nervous Tissue

Clusters of neuron cell bodies

Ganglion: cluster of cell bodies in PNS Nucleus: cluster of cell bodies in CNS

Bundles of axons
Nerve: bundle of axons in PNS Tract: bundle to axons in CNS

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Gray and White Matter

White matter: primarily myelinated axons Gray matter: cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals, neuroglia Locations of gray and white matter
Spinal cord: white matter (tracts) surround centrally located gray matter H of butterfly Brain: gray matter in thin cortex surrounds white matter (tracts)

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Neuron Regeneration

Regeneration of PNS neurons

Axons and dendrite in the PNS can be repaired if cell body is intact and Schwann cells functional. These form a regeneration tube and grow axons or dendrites if scar tissue does not fill the tube

Regeneration of CNS neurons

Very limited even if cell body is intact Inhibited by neuroglia and by lack of fetal growthstimulators

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Organization of the Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS) structures:

Brain Spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) structures:

Cranial nerves and branches Spinal nerves and branches Ganglia Sensory receptors

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Organization of the Nervous System

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Organization of the Nervous System

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) divisions

Somatic (SNS)

Sensory neurons from head, body wall, limbs, special sense organs Motor neurons to skeletal muscle: voluntary
Sensory neurons from viscera Motor neurons to viscera (cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands): involuntary

Autonomic (ANS) nervous systems

Sympathetic: fight-or-flight Parasympathetic: rest-and-digest

Enteric nervous system (ENS): brain of the gut

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Organization of the Nervous System

Peripheral nervous system (PNS),

Enteric nervous system (ENS): brain of the gut

Sensory neurons monitor chemical changes and stretching of GI wall Motor neurons regulate contractions, secretions and endocrine secretions (involuntary)

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Structure and Function of the Nervous System

Interactions Animation

Introduction to Structure and Function of the Nervous System

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Action Potentials

Action potentials = nerve impulses Require

A membrane potential: a charge difference across cell membrane (polarization) Ion channels: allow ions to move by diffusion from high to low concentration

Leakage channels: allow ions to leak through membrane; there are more for K+ than for Na+ Gated channels

Open and close on command Respond to changes in membrane so can generate and conduct action potentials
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Resting Membrane Potential

Typically 70 mV

Inside of membrane more negative than outside Inside (more negative) because cytosol has:

Caused by presence of ions:

Many negative ions (too large to leak out): amino acids (in cellular proteins) and phosphates (as in ATP) K+ that easily leaks out through many K+ channels

Outside (more positive) because interstitial fluid has:

Few negative ions Na+ that does not leak out of cell: few Na+ channels Membrane pumps that quickly pump out Na+ that does leak (diffuse) into cell
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Resting Membrane Potential

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Action Potential

Series of events that activate cell membrane in neuron or muscle fiber An initial event (stimulus) is required
Triggers resting membrane to become more permeable to Na+ Causes enough Na+ to enter cell so that cell membrane reaches threshold (~ 55 mv) If so, the following events occur: action potential which spreads along neuron or muscle fiber

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Action Potential

Depolarizing phase

Na+ channels open as more Na+ enters cell, membrane potential rises and becomes positive (70 0 + 30 mv) K+ channels open as more K+ leave cell, membrane potential is returned to resting value (+ 30 0 70 mv) May overshoot: hyperpolarizing phase

Repolarizing phase

Typically depolarization and repolarization take place in about 1 millisecond (1/1000 sec)
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Action Potential

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Action Potential

Recovery
Levels of ions back to normal by action of Na+/K+ pump Refractory period (brief): even with adequate stimulus, cell cannot be activated

All-or-none principle

If a stimulus is strong enough to cause depolarization to threshold level, the impulse will travel the entire length of the neuron at a constant and maximum strength.

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Membrane Potentials
Interactions Animations

Membrane Potentials

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Conduction of Nerve Impulses

Nerve impulse conduction (propagation)

Each section triggers the next locally as even more Na+ channels are opened (like row of dominos) Continuous conduction

Types of conduction

In unmyelinated fibers; slower form of conduction

In myelinated fibers; faster as impulses leap between nodes of Ranvier

Saltatory conduction

Factors that increase rate of conduction

Myelin, large diameter and warm nerve fibers

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Conduction of Nerve Impulses

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Conduction of Nerve Impulses

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Synaptic Transmission

Similar sequence of events occurs at

Synapse (neuron-neuron) Neuromuscular junction (neuron-muscle fiber: chapter 8) Neuroglandular junction (neuron-gland)

Triggered by action potential (nerve impulse) Components of synapse:

Sending neuron: presynaptic neuron (releases neurotransmitter) Space between neurons: synaptic cleft Receiving neuron: postsynaptic neuron

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Synaptic Transmission

Action potential arrives at presynaptic neurons end bulb Opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels Ca2+ flows into presynaptic cytosol Increased Ca2+ concentration exocytosis of synaptic vesicles Neurotransmitter (NT) released into cleft NT diffuses across cleft and binds to receptors in postsynaptic cell membrane
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Synaptic Transmission

NT serves as chemical trigger (stimulus) of ion channels Postsynaptic cell membrane may be depolarized or hyperpolarized

Depends on type of NT and type of postsynaptic cell 1000+ neurons converge on synapse; the sum of all of their NTs determines effect

If threshold reached, then postsynaptic cell action potential results

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Synaptic Transmission

One-way transmission only because

Only presynaptic cells release NT Only postsynaptic cells have receptors for NT binding

Finally, NT must be removed from the cleft. Three possible mechanisms

Diffusion out of cleft Destruction by enzymes (such as ACh-ase) in cleft Transport back (recycling) into presynaptic cell

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Signal Transmission at the Chemical Synapse

Copyright Copyright 2010, 2009 John John Wiley Wiley & & Sons, Sons, Inc. Inc.

38

Neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine (ACh): common in PNS

Stimulatory (on skeletal muscles) Inhibitory (on cardiac muscle) Glutamate, aspartate, gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine Norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), serotonin

Amino acids

Modified amino acids

Neuropeptides such as endorphins Nitric oxide (NO)

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

End of Chapter 9

Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in section 117 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without express permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Request for further information should be addressed to the Permission Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his/her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The Publishers assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of theses programs or from the use of the information herein.
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.