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SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS

Superconductivity - The phenomenon of losing


resistivity when sufficiently cooled to a very low
temperature (below a certain critical temperature).

H. Kammerlingh Onnes ! "ure #ercury


$esistance (%)
&.' &. &.( &.) &.&
Temperature (K)
'.*
'.'
'.'
T
c

Transition Temperature or Critica Temperature !T
C
"
Temperature at which a normal conductor
loses its resistivity and becomes a
superconductor.
+
,efinite for a material
+
-uperconducting transition reversible
+
.ery good electrical conductors not
superconductors eg. /u0 1g0 1u
+
Types
. 2ow T
/
superconductors
(. High T
/
superconductors

Occurrence o# Superconductivity
Superconductin$ Eements T
C
!%"
-n (Tin) ).3(
Hg (#ercury) &.*
"b (2ead) 3.!
Superconductin$ Compounds
4bTi (4iobium Titanium) '
4b
)
-n (4iobium Tin) 5.

Temperature ,ependence of
$esistance
Eectrica Resistivity
&'&
o
( &!T"
+Impurities
+P)onons
*i$) Temperature Lo+ Temperature
Impure Metas
& ' &
o
( &!T"
Pure Metas
& ' &!T"
Impure Metas
& ' &
o
Pure Metas
& ' ,
Superconductor

Properties of Superconductors
Electrical Resistance
+
6ero 7lectrical
$esistance
+
,efining "roperty
+
/ritical
Temperature
+
8uic9est test
+
'
-*
%cm

Effect of Magnetic Field
/ritical magnetic field (H
/
)
#inimum magnetic field
re:uired to destroy the
superconducting property at
any temperature
H
'
/ritical field at 'K
T - Temperature below T
/
T
/
- Transition Temperature
-uperconducting
4ormal
T (K) T
/
H
'
H
/
Eement *
C
at ,%
!mT"
4b !5
"b 5'.)
-n )'.!
2
0
1
C
C
T
H H
T
1
_
1

1
,
]

Effect of Electric Current
+
2arge electric current induces magnetic
field destroys superconductivity
+ ;nduced /ritical /urrent i
/
< (=rH
/
Persistent Current
+
-teady current which flows through a
superconducting ring without any
decrease in strength even after the
removal of the field
+
,iamagnetic property
i

Ma$netic -u. /uantisation
+
#agnetic flu> enclosed in a superconducting ring
< integral multiples of flu>on
+ ? < nh@(e < n ?
'
(?
'
< (>'
-*
Ab)
E##ect o# Pressure
+ "ressure B0 T
/
B
+ High T
/
superconductors High pressure
T)erma Properties
+ 7ntropy C -pecific heat D at T
/

+ ,isappearance of thermo electric effect at T
/

+ Thermal conductivity D at T
/
Type ;
superconductors

Stress
+ -tress B0 dimension B0 T
/
B0 H
/
affected
-re0uency
+ Ere:uency B0 6ero resistance modified0 T
/
not
affected
Impurities
+
#agnetic properties affected
Si1e
+
-iFe G '
-&
cm superconducting state modified
Genera Properties
+
4o change in crystal structure
+
4o change in elastic C photo-electric properties
+ 4o change in volume at T
/
in the absence of
magnetic field

MEISSNER EFFECT
+
Ahen the superconducting material is placed in a magnetic
field under the condition when THT
/
and H H H
/
0 the flu>
lines are e>cluded from the material.
+
#aterial e>hibits perfect diamagnetism or flu> e>clusion.
+
,eciding property
+
I < ;@H < -
+ $eversible (flu> lines penetrate when T B from T
/
)
+
/onditions for a material to be a superconductor
i. $esistivity J < '
ii. #agnetic ;nduction K < ' when in an uniform magnetic field
+
-imultaneous e>istence of conditions

1pplications of #eissner 7ffect
+
-tandard test proof for a superconductor
+
$epulsion of e>ternal magnets - levitation
#agnet
-uperconductor
2amanas)i ML3,4 Ma$Lev train

Isotope E##ect
+
#a>well
+ T
/
< /onstant @ #
L
+ T
/
#
L
< /onstant (L ;sotope 7ffect coefficient)
+
L < '.* '.*
+
L < ' (4o isotope effect)
+ T
/
M# < constant

Types o# Superconductors
Type I
+ -udden loss of magnetisation
+ 7>hibit #eissner 7ffect
+ One H
/
< '. tesla
+
4o mi>ed state
+
-oft superconductor
+
7g.s "b0 -n0 Hg
Type II
+
Nradual loss of magnetisation
+
,oes not e>hibit complete
#eissner 7ffect
+ Two H
/
s H
/
C H
/(
(O)' tesla)
+
#i>ed state present
+ Hard superconductor
+ 7g.s 4b--n0 4b-Ti
-#
H
H
/
-uperconducting
4ormal
-uperconducting
5M
4ormal
#i>ed
*
C4
*
C
*
C6
*

*i$) Temperature Superconductors
C)aracteristics
+ High T
/
+
-(-) /ompound
+
"erovs9ite crystal
structure
+
,irection dependent
+
$eactive0 brittle
+
O>ides of /u P other
elements

Appications
+
2arge distance power transmission (J < ')
+
-witching device (easy destruction of
superconductivity)
+
-ensitive electrical e:uipment (small .
variation large constant current)
+
#emory @ -torage element (persistent
current)
+
Highly efficient small siFed electrical
generator and transformer

Medica Appications
+
4#$ 4uclear #agnetic $esonance
-canning
+
Krain wave activity brain tumour0
defective cells
+
-eparate damaged cells and healthy cells
+
-uperconducting solenoids magneto
hydrodynamic power generation plasma
maintenance

-Q"7$/O4,Q/TO$-
+ -uperconductivity is a
phenomenon in certain
materials at e>tremely low
temperatures 0characteriFed by
e>actly Fero electrical
resistance and e>clusion of the
interior magnetic field (i.e. the
#eissner effect)
+
This phenomenon is nothing
but losing the resistivity
absolutely when cooled to
sufficient low temperatures

AHR A1- ;T EO$#7, S
+
Kefore the discovery of the
superconductors it was thought that the
electrical resistance of a conductor
becomes Fero only at absolute Fero
+
Kut it was found that in some materials
electrical resistance becomes Fero when
cooled to very low temperatures
+
These materials are nothing but the
-Q"7$ /O4,QTO$-.

AHO EOQ4, ;TS
+
-uperconductivity was discovered in ! by
Hei9e Kammerlingh Onnes 0 who studied the
resistance of solid mercury at cryogenic
temperatures using the recently discovered
li:uid helium as TrefrigerantU.
+
1t the temperature of &.( K 0 he observed that
the resistance abruptly disappears.
+
Eor this discovery he got the 4OK72 "$;67 in
"HR-;/- in !).
+
;n !) lead was found to super conduct at 3K.
+
;n !& niobium nitride was found to super
conduct at VK

APPLICATIONS
O-
SUPER
CONDUCTORS

+
Transmission of power
+
-witching devices
+
-ensitive electrical instruments
+
#emory (or) storage element in
computers.
+
#anufacture of electrical generators and
transformers
. 7ngineering

(. #edical
+
4uclear #agnetic $esonance (4#$)
+
,iagnosis of brain tumor
+
#agneto hydrodynamic power
generation

WO-7"H-O4
,7.;/7-
by Brian Josephson

Principe7 persistent current in d.c. voltage
E.panation7
+
/onsists of thin layer of
insulating material placed
between two
superconducting
materials.
+
;nsulator acts as a barrier
to the flow of electrons.
+
Ahen voltage applied
current flowing between
super conductors by
tunneling effect.
+
8uantum tunnelling
occurs when a particle
moves through a space in
a manner forbidden by
classical physics0 due to
the potential barrier
involved

Components o# current
+
;n relation to the K/- theory
(Kardeen /ooper -chrieffer) mentioned
earlier0 pairs of electrons move through
this barrier continuing the superconducting
current. This is 9nown as the dc current8
+
/urrent component persists only till the
e>ternal voltage application. This is ac
current8

Qses of Wosephson devices
+
#agnetic -ensors
+
Nradiometers
+
Oscilloscopes
+
,ecoders
+
1nalogue to ,igital converters
+
Oscillators
+
#icrowave amplifiers
+
-ensors for biomedical0 scientific and defence
purposes
+
,igital circuit development for ;ntegrated circuits
+
#icroprocessors
+
$andom 1ccess #emories ($1#s)

-8Q;,-
(-uper conducting 8uantum
;nterference ,evices)



Discovery7
The ,/ -8Q;, was invented in !V& by $obert
Wa9levic0 Wohn 2ambe0 1rnold -ilver0 and Wames
#ercereau of Eord $esearch 2abs
Principe 7
Small change in magnetic field, produces
variation in the flux quantum.
Construction7
The superconducting :uantum interference
device (-8Q;,) consists of two superconductors
separated by thin insulating layers to form two
parallel Wosephson Xunctions.

Types
Two main types of -8Q;,Y
) $E -8Q;,s have only one Wosephson
Xunction
(),/ -8Q;,s have two or more
Xunctions.
Thereby0
+
more difficult and e>pensive to produce.
+
much more sensitive.

Wosephson Xunctions
+
1 type of electronic
circuit capable of
switching at very high
speeds when operated at
temperatures
approaching absolute
Fero.
+
4amed for the Kritish
physicist who designed it0
+
a Wosephson Xunction
e>ploits the phenomenon
of superconductivity.

/onstruction
+
1 Wosephson Xunction is made
up of two superconductors0
separated by a
nonsuperconducting layer so
thin that electrons can cross
through the insulating barrier.
+ The flow of current between
the superconductors in the
absence of an applied voltage
is called a Josephson current0
+
the movement of electrons
across the barrier is 9nown as
Josephson tunneling.
+ Two or more Xunctions Xoined
by superconducting paths form
what is called a Josephson
interferometer.

/onstruction Y
/onsists of
superconducting ring
having magnetic
fields of :uantum
values(0(0)..)
"laced in between the
two Xosephson
Xunctions

7>planation Y
+
Ahen the magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the ring current is
induced at the two Xunctions
+
;nduced current flows around the ring
thereby magnetic flu> in the ring has
:uantum value of field applied
+
Therefore used to detect the variation of
very minute magnetic signals

Eabrication
+
2ead or pure niobium The lead is usually in the form of
an alloy with 'Z gold or indium0 as pure lead is
unstable when its temperature is repeatedly changed.
+
The base electrode of the -8Q;, is made of a very thin
niobium layer
+
The tunnel barrier is o>idiFed onto this niobium surface.
+
The top electrode is a layer of lead alloy deposited on
top of the other two0 forming a sandwich arrangement.
+
To achieve the necessary superconducting
characteristics0 the entire device is then cooled to within
a few degrees of absolute Fero with li:uid helium

Qses
+
-torage device for magnetic flu>
+
-tudy of earth:ua9es
+
$emoving paramagnetic impurities
+
,etection of magnetic signals from brain0
heart etc.

/ryotron
The cryotron is a switch that operates using
superconductivity. The cryotron wor9s on the
principle that magnetic fields destroy
superconductivity. The cryotron is a piece of
tantalum wrapped with a coil of niobium placed
in a li:uid helium bath. Ahen the current flows
through the tantalum wire it is superconducting0
but when a current flows through the niobium a
magnetic field is produced. This destroys the
superconductivity which ma9es the current slow
down or stop.

#agnetic 2evitated Train
PrincipeY 7lectro-magnetic induction
Introduction7
Ma$netic evitation transport0 or ma$ev0 is a form of transportation
that suspends0 guides and propels vehicles via electromagnetic force.
This method can be faster than wheeled mass transit systems0
potentially reaching velocities comparable to turboprop and Xet aircraft
(*'' to *5' 9m@h).

-uperconductors may be considered per#ect diama$nets ([r < ')0
completely e>pelling magnetic fields due to the #eissner effect. The
levitation of the magnet is stabiliFed due to flu> pinning within the
superconductor. This principle is e>ploited by 7,-
(electrodynamicsuspension) magnetic levitation trains.
;n trains where the weight of the large electromagnet is a maXor
design issue (a very strong magnetic field is re:uired to levitate a
massive train) superconductors are used for the electromagnet0 since
they can produce a stronger magnetic field for the same weight.
9)y superconductor :

Eectrodynamic suspension

;n 7lectrodynamic suspension (7,-)0 both the rail and the train e>ert a
magnetic field0 and the train is levitated by the repulsive force between
these magnetic fields. The magnetic field in the train is produced by either
electromagnets or by an array of permanent magnets The repulsive force in
the trac9 is created by an induced magnetic field in wires or other
conducting strips in the trac9.
1t slow speeds0 the current induced in these coils and the resultant
magnetic flu> is not large enough to support the weight of the train. Eor this
reason the train must have wheels or some other form of landing gear to
support the train until it reaches a speed that can sustain levitation.
"ropulsion coils on the guideway are used to e>ert a force on the magnets
in the train and ma9e the train move forwards. The propulsion coils that
e>ert a force on the train are effectively a linear motorY 1n alternating
current flowing through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic
field that moves forward along the trac9. The fre:uency of the alternating
current is synchroniFed to match the speed of the train. The offset between
the field e>erted by magnets on the train and the applied field create a force
moving the train forward
*o+ to use a Super conductor


Advanta$es

4o need of initial energy in case of magnets for low speeds

One litre of2i:uid nitrogen costs less than one litre of mineral water

Onboard magnets and large margin between rail and train enable highest
recorded train speeds (*5 9m@h) and heavy load capacity.-uccessful
operations using high temperature superconductors in its onboard
magnets0 cooled with ine>pensive li:uid nitrogen

#agnetic fields inside and outside the vehicle are insignificant\ proven0
commercially available technology that can attain very high speeds (*''
9m@h)\ no wheels or secondary propulsion system needed

Eree of friction as it is ]2evitating^

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