Syntax

Applied Modern Languages 2nd year Asist. dr. Diana Mdroane

Syntax Course 1
What is syntax?
John gave the book to Mary. Mary gave the book to John.

The term 'syntax' is from the Ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means 'arrangement' or 'setting out together'. Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence. (Matthews 1982 in Van Valin Jr. 2001: 1)

Syntax Course 1
Syntax is that branch of linguistics which describes the phenomena of the contemporary language in point of relations between words and their correct arrangement in units of expression apt to reflect logical units and patterns. (Banta 1996: 77)

Syntax is a set of principles, rules and indications governing the best arrangement of elements in the structure of communication. (Banta 1996: 77)
the basic syntactic unit = the sentence it enjoys a status of independence at various levels (structural, phonological, graphic, semantic) syntactic subunits = parts of the (simple) sentence

Syntax Course 1
Syntactic subunits: main/principal parts of the sentence: the subject the predicate

secondary parts of the sentence: the the the the attribute object (direct, indirect, prepositional) predicative adverbial modifier

Syntax Course 1
The parts of the sentence take the form of words or combinations of words, which may be also accompanied by prepositions. They are called phrases. If we look at the sentence in terms of structure (internal organisation), then phrases represent the structural constituents of a sentence (e.g. the noun phrase, the verb phrase, the adverbial phrase).

Examples of noun phrases: the Queen of the Netherlands a beautiful baby girl

Syntax Course 1
THE CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

Criteria: (1) The purpose of communication (modality/manner or the speakers attitude) related to content; (2) Structure related to form; (3) Status or grammatical dependence. (Banta 1996: 81)

Syntax Course 1
(1) The purpose of communication: Declarative sentences (also known as statements): affirm, declare, or state something (positive or negative) usually without emotional implication (Banta 1996: 82); are defined by a certain word order, following the pattern Subject^Predicate^Object: They bought a new flat. take the verb is in the indicative mood.

Syntax Course 1
Interrogative sentences: are expressions of the speakers/writers curiosity; word order generally involves partial inversion, following the pattern Auxiliary^Subject: Does he practise the piano every day? or full inversion, e.g. in the case of the verb to be: Is she at home? (Predicate^Subject) they can be further classified into several types, for example general questions yes or no questions or special/particular questions Wh- questions etc. (Banta 1996: 85-86)

Syntax Course 1
Imperative sentences: include commands, requests, invitations: Come here! Have a seat! This way, please! take the verb is in the imperative mood, but there are also imperative sentences that do not contain a verb.
(Banta 1996: 86)

Syntax Course 1
Exclamatory sentences: are connected with our emotions and feelings positive or negative: Thats a terrible thing to say! typically begin with adverbs or pronouns and word order frequently involves inversion: How nice of you to come! What a beautiful day this is! Isnt she lovely! (Banta 1996: 86)

Syntax Course 1
(2) Structure/composition/form: The simple sentence is the sentence which expresses just one thought at a time, by means of one predicate (or main focus/nucleus) between two punctuation marks that are destined for separating thoughts or between two conclusive pauses in the speech chain, indicating the beginning of a new utterance and its end (Banta 1996: 87)

He is our new neighbour. John likes her.

Syntax Course 1
The compound sentence is a thought which includes more units than one, placed on an equal footing (Banta 1996: 87) the term compound is employed here in the sense of coordination; the compound sentence typically contains two or more clauses which have the same function and are connected by coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, etc.): Life here is expensive and we have found no work yet.

Syntax Course 1
The complex sentence is a unit of thinking made up of one or more main/principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses (Banta 1996: 87). the term complex is employed here in the sense of subordination/embedding (different levels): Mary said that she hadnt been there. If she had come, I would have seen her. My brother, who is in Austria, is coming home for Easter.

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(3) Status/dependence: independent sentences (isolated); independent clauses (as parts of a compound sentence); main/principal/head clauses (in complex sentences); subordinate/secondary clauses (in complex sentences). (Banta 1996: 88)

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Sentences may also be classified as: Finite or non-finite (according to the form of the verb): They are laughing. The girl was walking down the street, singing a song. Personal or impersonal (according to the nature of the subject): The professor is a specialist in applied linguistics. It is cold.

Syntax Course 1
References:
Banta, A. 1996. Descriptive English Syntax. Iasi: Institutul European. Van Valin Jr., R.D. 2001. An Introduction to Syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Course Outline
Course 1: Introduction. Classification of Sentences Course 2: The Simple Sentence (The Subject and the Predicate) Course 3: The Simple Sentence (The Object) Course 4: The Simple Sentence (The Adverbials) Course 5: The Compound Sentence. The Complex Sentence (Subject Clauses, Predicative Clauses, Object Clauses, Appositive Clauses) Course 6:The Complex Sentence (Adverbial Clauses) Course 7: The Sequence of Tenses. Reported Speech

Bibliography
Basic bibliography:
Banta, A. 1996. Descriptive English Syntax. Iasi: Institutul European. Salapina, G., M. Popa and G. Schmidt. 1979. Limba englez contemporan. Timioara: Tipografia Universitii din Timioara.

Further reading:
Bdescu, A. 1984. Gramatica limbii engleze. Bucureti: Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic. (pp. 527-625) Crystal, D. 1995. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (pp. 214-233) Celce-Murcia, M. And D. Larsen. 1999. The Grammar Book: An ESL / EFL Teachers Course (2nd ed.). Heinle&Heinle. Greenbaum, S. And R. Quirk. 1996. A Students Grammar of the English Language. Harlow: Longman House.

Bibliography
Exercises
Graver, B.D. 1995. Advanced English Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Foley, M. And D. Hall. 2003. Advanced Learners Grammar: A Self-study reference&practice book with answers. Harlow: Pearson Education. Hewings, M. 1999. Advanced English Grammar in Use with Answers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vince, M. 1994. Anvanced Language Practice. Oxford: Macmillan Heinemann.

Syntax Course 1
The driver of the train blamed for yesterday's head-on collision in Belgium which claimed at least 18 lives survived the crash by jumping from his cab moments before the impact, officials confirmed this morning. Police said that they were waiting to question the surviving driver, said to be in a serious condition in hospital, who was reported to have tried to sound the alarm moments before he leapt to safety. Train drivers across Belgium went on a spontaneous strike today in protest that poor working conditions may have contributed to the accident, in which 171 people were injured, some requiring on-the-spot amputations to free them from the mangled wreckage.
(The Times, February 16, 2010)

Syntax Course 1
Hungry for Hollywood? In a quest for success, have some stars gone a diet too far? If you value happiness above everything else, think of what would make you happy. Is it having a fulfilling love life or winning that promotion? Buying a bigger flat, or having more spare cash to spend on going out? (Cosmopolitan, May 1999)

Syntax Course 1
One day the pirate Modi was out running errands with his mom. They shopped for groceries and ate peas at his favorite restaurant. Then the pirate Modi's mom said, "Oh yes, we need to stop off at the doctor's office for a quick checkup. The doctor checked Modi's heart, his blood pressure, and his knees. Then he explained that Modi would come back the next day and get a shot, to protect him from scurvy or something. The pirate Modi did not like shots. That evening his father came home and Modi told him all about the visit to the doctor. (The Brave Monkey Pirate)

Syntax Course 1
This is a great cake to make for that special person in your life its not too difficult and totally delicious! Serve it with a little glass of whatever booze you decide to add to the chocolate sauce I love brandy, but rum, Amaretto or Baileys would also work well.

Preheat the oven to 180C/350F/gas 4 and grease a small ovenproof dish (9 or 10 inches) with butter.
Mix the cocoa powder with a few tablespoons of boiling water and stir until the mixture is lovely and smooth. In another bowl or a food mixer, beat the butter and sugar together until fluffy and light then add the cocoa mixture, egg, flour and baking powder. Mix it all together really well, pour into your ovenproof dish and sprinkle the cherries and hazelnuts on top before putting in the oven for about 25 minutes. (Jamie Oliver Chocolate Love Cake with Cherries and Booze)