Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Outer
Middle
Inner
The functions
Ear canal: channel sound wave to ear drum Eardrum: vibrate in resonance with sound wave to drive the ossicles Eustachian tube: equalize pressure on both sides of eardrum Ossicles: vibrate the oval window causing fluid in cochlea to vibrate Cochlea: vibration of cochlear fluid causes hairs (cilia) to vibrate which creates electrical impulse different hairs resonate with different frequencies transform vibrations of fluid into electrical impulses auditory nerves: send electrical impulses to brain to allow sound to be interpreted
The mechanism
Sound Pressure is multiplied in two ways a) Lever action of ossicles mechanical advantage that turns a small force at tympanic
membrane into a larger force at oval window (1.5:1) fD = Fd b) Different areas small area of eardrum and smaller area of oval window (20:1) AT>AO
Why middle ear? The impedance of air and liquid is different, most sound wave will be
reflected without the middle ear.
Pitch
A normal human ear can hear sounds in the range 20 Hz up to 20000 Hz (20
kHz)
Intensity (amplitude)2 LOUDNESS Intensity is a measurable quantity whereas loudness is subjective and
depends on the listener.
Decibel
=
10
1 = 10
Hearing tests
Air conduction / bone
conduction
Hearing loss:
Cause
Loss
OK
Conductive loss
blockages - build up of wax or fluid. accidents - the eardrum can be ruptured or the middle ear could be damaged. diseases - the bones in the middle ear (and the oval window) can be prevented from moving. age - with increasing age, the bones in the middle ear(and the oval window) tend to become solidified
Sensory loss can be caused by ageing or the exposure to excessive noise over periods of time.
Loss
Loss
Sensory loss
X-ray
For a given energy of X-rays and given material there will be a Relationship:
Since X-rays cause ionizations, they are dangerous. This means that the intensity used needs to be kept to an
absolute minimum. This can be done by introducing something to intensify (to enhance) the image. There are two simple techniques of enhancement: absorb this extra light. The overall effect is to darken the image in the areas where X-rays are still present.
When X-rays strike an intensifying screen the energy is re-radiated as visible light. The photographic film can In an image-intensifier tube the X-rays strike a fluorescent screen and produce light. This light causes
electrons to be emitted from a photocathode. These electrons are then accelerated towards an anode where they strike another fluorescent screen and give off light to produce an image.
Computed Tomography
X-ray image of target taken at different angles (many
different directions)
images of many sections/slices can be obtained combined to build up a 3D image so image can be
rotated for viewing from any angle
Comparison
X-ray imaging 1) uses ionizing radiation (X-rays)
Barium
All tissues in the abdominal cavity have approximately the same attenuation
coefficient so there is little to no contrast on photographic film.
The attenuation coefficient for barium is greater than for the tissues in the
abdominal cavity.
Ultrasound
Principles
High frequency sound waves are transmitted
from a probe into the patients body and are reflected at each boundary between different types of tissue and bone. The same probe both transmits and receives the ultrasound waves. By measuring the time between transmission and reception, the distance to each boundary can be calculated using the speed of sound and thus the location and surface of each organ can be mapped.
Principles (continued)
Piezoelectric crystal: a quartz
crystal that changes shape when a potential difference is applied across it
Impedance
product of the density of a substance and the speed of sound in that
substance
Z = c Unit: Kg/(m2s) or Rayl The greater the difference of impedance between the two media, the more
reflection occurs.
So gel is used.
Choice on Frequency
Item Resolution Attenuation Higher Frequency Good Bad Lower Frequency Bad Good
Type of scans
A-scan: amplitude-modulated scan one-dimensional not usually used B-scan: brightness-modulated scan two-dimensional most frequent
NMR / MRI
NMR: nuclear magnetic resonance MRI: magnetic resonance imaging
Principles
a) Large constant uniform magnetic field causes hydrogen atoms to line up (align their spin axes) act like tiny magnets b) Small non-uniform magnetic field is superimposed on top of larger field localized magnetic field weak oscillating
field in the form of pulses of radio waves hydrogen atoms realign
c) If frequency of radio waves matches that of the hydrogen atoms (resonance) then the smaller field makes some
d) When small non-uniform field is removed, atoms relax back to original alignment e) As they relax they emit radio-waves f) Time it takes to relax is measured
g) Frequency of emitted radio waves and relaxation times are processed to produce the NMR image
Radiation in medicine
Term Exposure
Symbol X (eXposure)
Terms Formula
X = q/m
Unit C/kg
Exposure ratio of total charge of air ionized by radiation to mass of air. Significance: attempt to measure total amount of ionization produced by radiation limited application since doesnt measure ability of body tissue to absorb radiation
Absorbed Dose
D (Dose)
D = E/m
J/kg
Absorbed Dose total energy absorbed per unit mass of tissue Significance: difficult to measure directly attempts to measure amount of radiation tissue absorbs Factors: Type of radiation Intensity of radiation Exposure time Quality Factor (Relative Biological Effectiveness) RBE (Relative Biological Effectiveness) Q (Quality) - (arbitrary)
Quality Factor (Relative Biological Effectiveness) for the same absorbed dose, this measures the relative effectiveness of different radiations in destroying cells Significance: other radiations measured against X-rays alpha particles are 10 times more damaging per dose than X rays
Balanced Risk
If the dose is too high, too many healthy cells are killed. If the dose if too
low, cancer is not destroyed. The dose needs to be as high as possible in the region of the cancer and as low as possible everywhere else.
1) A radioactive element
2) High energy X-rays, gamma rays or protons from particle accelerators Example of therapy technique using X-rays to kill cancer cells in a tumor: a) X-rays are much higher intensity than those used to take chest X-rays b) Cancer cells are targeted to receive a high dose by irradiating region from different angles with tumor in overlap region
c) Aim is to minimize danger to other healthy cells while killing cancerous ones since malignant cells are preferentially susceptible to x-rays.
Choice Of Radio-isotope