Academic Writing

A Brief Overview

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this session you should:

Understand the key principles of academic writing Understand how to structure paragraphs Know how to structure academic documents such as project reports and essays Be aware of some common grammar and punctuation errors

Overview of Session
Basic principles of academic writing The paragraph From paragraph to essay/report Common pitfalls in grammar and punctuation Exercise: Application of the principles discussed to the analysis of a specific academic paper

Objectivity
The emphasis should not be on what the author thinks or believes The reader is interested in the accuracy of the information and the validity of the arguments Everything must be justified

Using Opinions, Facts and Arguments

Opinions are personal beliefs. Not always based on good evidence. Facts can usually be checked against evidence Arguments are reasons (which can include facts) given to support a point of view
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Using Opinions, Facts and Arguments contd

It is important to be aware of the difference Unsubstantiated opinion has little place in academic documents

Subjective Words

Academic writing avoids personal subjective words such as:

Nice, wonderful, worthwhile, usual, normal or natural.

The readers understanding of these words may be very different from your own
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Formality
Use formal English avoid slang and colloquialism, such as these: The writer is out of order when he suggests The new plans were just the stuff. These findings need to be taken with a pinch of salt. The argument was a bit over the top.
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Abbreviations and Contractions

Normally write out in full words/phrases such as: Dept. i.e. Didnt Theyre Isnt As As As As As Department That is Did not They are Is not
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Impersonality
This contributes to an impression of objectivity Avoid the first person I, we, myself Passive constructions are often useful Compare

I identified three cases Three cases were identified

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Impersonality contd
In general, try to begin sentences in impersonal ways such as:
It can be seen that There are a number of It has been found that This report supports

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Impersonality contd
Avoid using you to refer to the reader or people in general. Compare

You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago. It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago.
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Be Cautious

Academic writing generally sounds cautious. Writers indicate that they are aware that nothing is completely certain. They use words that express this lack of certainty, such as:

Appears to; seems to; tends to; may; might; possibly; probably; apparently; generally; seemingly; They may use phrases such as: In some cases, this The evidence suggests, that
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Be Concise

Cut out irrelevant material Edit out unnecessary words. A man called Robert Smith invented In a book called Best Businesses 2004
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Be Precise

Some people did not like the idea at the time and made the politicians stop it but then he attacked him publicly
Why is it vague?

Some people who exactly ? The idea which idea? At the time when? Date? The politicians all politicians? Or a certain group? Or a political party? Made the politicians how did they make them Stop it stop what? How was it stopped? People did not like the idea why not?

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Question What You Write

As you write: Keep checking for precision Ask yourself questions, such as: When exactly?, What exactly, Why exactly? or Who? Check that you have given your readers enough detail for them to know exactly what you are talking about.
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What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a unit of ideas

There should only be ONE new idea in each paragraph usually Good paragraphs have
unity coherence
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What is a paragraph? Contd

Paragraphs: are the building blocks of writing aid the reader by breaking up the text into units provide logical breaks in subject matter develop ideas
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Key Features of a Well-Written Paragraph

It contains a topic sentence (sets up expectations for reader)

Only ONE idea is developed (unity) The sentences follow each other in a logical sequence (coherence) The sentences develop the topic sentence by giving evidence,supporting facts, and examples (support)
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Paragraph Length
There is no right length Paragraphs in academic documents tend to be relatively long A document consisting of very short paragraphs can read like a list But paragraphs that are too long are hard to read

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Use Continuous Prose

Make sparing use of bullet pointsin essays Incorporate the points into sentences Write in full sentences, grouped together into paragraphs Bullet points and lists are sometimes acceptable in reports, including project reports

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Typical Paragraph Structure

1.Topic 2.Body

sentence

Supporting sentence 1 Supporting sentence 2 Supporting sentence 3 Etc.

3.Concluding

sentence (optional)

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Typical Paragraph Structure contd

There are, of course, no golden rules

A concluding sentence is usually not needed, unless a paragraph is freestanding

Ultimately structure should follow content

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A Simple Example Paragraph

Topic sentence
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore it is suitable for jewelery, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was made twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts suits. Astronauts wear gold plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty, but also its utility.

Concluding Sentence

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Another Example
Albert Einstein, one of the world's geniuses, failed his university entrance examinations on his first attempt. William Faulkner, one of America's noted writers, never finished college because he could not pass his English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered one of the masters of the English language, had to have special tutoring in English during elementary school. These few examples show that failure in school does not always predict failure in life.
Topic sentence
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Typical Essay Structure

Introduction Body Paragraphs

Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3

Conclusion
Summary Final Thoughts
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Structure of Academic Paper

Introduction Abstract Keywords Body Paragraphs

Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3

Conclusion
Summary Final Thoughts

References

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The Introduction
Introduces the topic of the essay Should arouse the readers interest A common approach is the:

Funnel Introduction
General statements The thesis statement
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The Funnel Introduction

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Example of Funnel Introduction

The Declaration of Independence is so widely regarded as a statement of American ideals that its origins in practical politics tend to be forgotten. Thomas Jeffersons draft was intensely debated and then revised in the Continental Congress. Jefferson was disappointed with the result. However, a close reading of both the historical context and the revisions themselves indicates that the Congress improved the document for its intended purpose.
thesis
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Transition between Paragraphs

Paragraphs need to be linked together with connective devices There are two key approaches:

take an idea from the end of one paragraph and use it to start the next use transition words/phrases to signal the direction your writing is taking
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An Example of the First Approach

Unlike many countries in Europe, multiple voting shares do not exist in Thailand. Thai law prohibits the issuance of such shares. Therefore, when we identify who owns and controls the sample firms, we focus only on three control mechanisms, namely, direct, pyramidal, and cross-shareholdings. The first form of control mechanism, Direct ownership, means a shareholder who owns shares under his own name or via a private company owned by him. Indirect ownership is when a company is owned via other public firms or a chain of public firms.
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Transition Words/Phrases
Certain words are used to: Link ideas together Signpost to the reader the direction your line of reasoning is about to take such as:
position in sequence cause/effect introducing examples introducing an alternative
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Example Transition Words/Phrases

Time/Sequence
Introduce an Additional Idea Introduce an Example Comparison or Contrast Cause/Effect

first(ly), second(ly), next, finally in addition, moreover, furthermore for example, for instance similarly, on the other hand, in contrast, while consequently, therefore, 34 because, hence, thus

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Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.
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Or rather
According to a researcher at Cambridge University, it doesn't matter in what order the letters in a word are, the only important thing is that the first and last letter be at the right place. The rest can be a total mess and you can still read it without problem. This is because the human mind does not read every letter by itself but the word as a whole.
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Grammar, Spelling and Punctuation

It is difficult to spot your own mistakes Have your project report proof-read by a non subject expert with good English Use the Word grammar checker, but dont rely on it it has no idea of meaning It will accept, e.g. John intends to loose weight

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A Few Common Errors

I like his new car. Its alloy wheels are great. All the students assignments were good. Apples and pears. I met Tom and Susan. There house is in Walsall. The principle reason was The inflation rate is effected by interest rates The game was exciting, Ronaldo scored a brilliant goal.
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Summary
When writing your project report: Take note of the conventions of academic writing Structure it, using a logical division of ideas Make sure that paragraphs are unified and coherent Have it carefully proof-read
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References
Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English (4th ed.). Pearson Education. Cottrell, S. (2003). The Study Skills Handbook (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. http://www.skills4study.com http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm
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Exercise
Read the paper Keynote Paper: developing knowledge and learning strategies in mobile organisations by Jay Liebowitz Discuss: The extent to which it conforms to academic conventions The overall structure and layout The structure of paragraphs
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