UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

EDUC. 12-LET REVIEW 2012

COMPETENCIES

Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, socio-cultural factors that affect learning; Apply the theories of learning and development to the teaching-learning process; Draw the educational implications of research findings related to child and adolescent learning and development along with the biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and psychological dimensions; Organize a learning environment that is responsive to learners needs and that promotes fairness among learners of various cultures, family background, and gender.

Definitions of Learning
Learning is a process that produces a relatively permanent change in behavior. It is a process of acquiring, remembering and applying knowledge, skills, attitudes and other models of response It is a process that brings together cognitive, emotional and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing or making changes in ones knowledge, skills, values and world views.

Types of Learning
Rational learning- intellectual in nature; the outcome is knowledge acquisition or mental assimilation; involves the process of abstraction and generalization Motor learning- outcome is development of skill resulting in speed and precision of performance Associational learning- outcome is the acquisition and retention of facts and information; involves the development of associative patterns by which ideas and experiences are retained, recalled and recognized and linked with prior knowledge for meaning and easy retrieval. Appreciational learning- outcome is appreciation and aesthetic improvement; process of acquiring attitudes, ideals, judgment and recognition of worth of experiences gained.

14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles of Learning

A. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors 1. Nature of the Learning Process: The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience. 2. Goals of the Learning Process: The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. 3. Construction of knowledge: The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways. 4. Strategic Thinking: The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. 5. Thinking about thinking: Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking. 6. Context of Learning: Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional practices.

B. Motivational and Affective Factors 7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning: What and how much is learned is influenced by the learners motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individuals emotional status, beliefs, interests, goals, and habits of thinking. 8. Intrinsic motivation to learn: Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests and providing for personal choice and control. 9. Effects of motivation on effort: Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without the learners motivation to learn, the willingness to exert effort

C. Developmental and Social Factors 10. Developmental influences on learning: As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domain is taken into account. 11. Social influences on learning: Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others.

D. Individual Difference Factors

12. Individual differences in learning Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity 13. Learning and diversity: Learning is most effective when differences in learners linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds are taken into account 14. Standards and assessment: Setting approximately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as the learning progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment- are integral parts of the learning process

Summary of the 14 principles (Alexander & Murphy)

The knowledge base. Ones existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks have a crucial role in the learning process.

Summary of the 14 principles (Alexander & Murphy)

Development and Individual differences. Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own unique combination of generic and environmental factors that influence him. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual

3 major philosophical frameworks of learning

Behaviorism focuses on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Basic Assumptions: Learning is manifested by a change in behavior The environment shapes the behavior The principles of contiguity (how close 2 events must be to form a bond) and reinforcement (the means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to the learning process.

Cognitivism looks beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning

Basic Assumptions: That the memory is an active organized processor of information That prior knowledge plays an important role in learning

Aspects of Cognitivism
Learning how to learn (metacognition)

Developmental theories of learning (cognitive abilities develop according to maturation

Learning is an internal mental process (insights, reflection, information processing, memory, perception) where the learners capacity and skills need to be developed to improve learning. The focus of the learning activity is on building intelligence and development of metacognition. It focuses on the process of adaptation

Constructivism focuses on learning as a process in which the learner builds new concepts based upon current and past experiences. Basic Assumptions:
Learning is a personal endeavor The teacher acts only as facilitator to help students discover for themselves and construct new knowledge.

Theories Related to the Learners Development

Sigmund Freuds Psycho-sexual Development

Jean Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development Eriksons Psycho-Social Theory of Development Vygotskys Socio-Cultural Theory Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development Bronfenbreners Bio-Ecological System Theory

 Focus: The effect of early childhood experiences to adults behavior Freud believed that much of what the person is really about is not what we see .in the outside and what is conscious, but what is there hidden in the subconscious mind 3 Components of Personality Id which is pleasure-centered Ego which is reality-centered Superego which is related to the ideal or the conscience

Sigmund Freuds Psycho-sexual Development

1. Oral stage (0-18 months): stimulation of the mouth produces pleasure 2. Anal stage (18-36 months): stimulation of the anal region produces pleasure 3. Phallic stage (3-6 years): self-stimulation of the genitals pleasure 4. Latency stage (6 years puberty): sexual feelings are expressed 5. Genital stage (puberty onward): adolescent adult has mature sexual feelings and experiences pleasure from sexual relationship with others Each stage demands satisfaction of needs, and failure to do so results in fixations.

5 stages of Psycho-sexual development

Jean Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1: Sensori-motor Stage (From Birth to Infancy, or about 2 years old) Through the use of his senses and muscles (sensori-motor), he comes to learn about himself and the world. Goal: Object permanence, the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out of sight

 Stage 2: Pre-operational stage (2 years old to about 7 years old) At this stage, the child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend. - Intelligence is intuitive in nature

Highlights of Stage 2: Pre-operational Stage

Symbolic Function The child is able to represent objects and events with symbols. (drawing, words both oral and written). The symbols can be actual or imagined. Egocentrism The child tends to only see his point of view and assumes that everyone also has the same point of view. He cannot take the perspectives of others. Centration The child has the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a thing or event. ( size, height) Irreversibility The child is unable to reverse his thinking. ( inability to see relationships of various operations) Animism The child attributes human traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. Transductive reasoning This refers to the childs type of reasoning that is from particular to particular.

Stage 3: Concrete-operational stage (8 to about 11-12 years old)

The child is now able to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects Adult-like logic appears but is limited to reasoning about concrete reality

Highlights of Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage

Decentering The child can now perceive the different features of objects or situations. He can now look at the various aspects or dimensions and is more logical in his thoughts. Reversibility The child can now follow reverse operations. The child can now understand relationships of processes. Conservation This is the ability of the child to know that certain properties like mass or volume remains unchanged even if there is a change in shape or appearance. Seriation The child can now order or arrange things in a series according to certain dimensions like (height, weight)

Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (12 to 15 years old through adulthood)

Thinking becomes more logical and the child can now solve abstract problems.
Logical reasoning processes are applied to both concrete and abstract ideas

Highlights of Stage4: Formal Operational Stage

Hypothetical reasoning This is the ability to form hypothesis or educated guess about a problem and to gather data and weigh the pros and the cons to make a final decision or judgment. Analogical reasoning This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one situation and use that relationship in another situation. The child can now form analogy. Even in the absence of concrete objects, through reflection, he can now understand relationships and form judgments. Deductive reasoning This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular situation.

Principles of Teaching derived from Piagets Theory

Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage the learners and require adaptation. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of a given age level. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema refers to the cognitive structures by which an individual intellectually adapt to or organize his environment. It is his way of understanding or creating meaning about an experience or a thing. Assimilation refers to the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created schema. Accommodation refers to the process of creating a new schema Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation; that is establishing congruence between what is perceived and what is understood. Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation

Eriksons Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Focus: Life is a continuous process involving learning and trials which help us grow Theory: People pass through eight (8) psychosocial stages in their lifetime and as they grow, they face a series of psycho-social crises that shape personality; each crisis focuses on a particular aspect of personality and involves the persons relationship with others

Eight (8) Psycho-social Stages of Development

Stage 1- Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year) Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust Virtue: Hope According to Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust- that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust- that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly dangerous place.

Stage 2 - Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Main Question: "Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?" Virtue: Will As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert his will. The parents' patience and encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges.

Stage 3 - Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4 to 6 years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt Main Question: "Am I good or am I bad?" Virtue: Purpose During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-limits. But if adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires.

vs. Inferiority (Childhood, 7 to 12 years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority Main Question: "Am I successful or worthless?" Virtue: Competence If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed and putting work before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities.

Stage 5 - Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents, 13 to 19 years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion Main Question: "Who am I and where am I going?" Virtue: Fidelity Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion- mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society- and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities. Eventually, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed.

 Psychosocial crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation Main Question: "Am I loved and wanted?" or "Shall I share my life with someone or live alone?" Virtue: Love Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes they are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. They are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or their partners breaking up with them.

Stage 6 - Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults, 20 to 34 years

Stage 7 - Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 35 to 65 years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation Main Question: "Will I produce something of real value?" Virtue: Care During middle age the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. When a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity- a sense of productivity and accomplishment- results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation- a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity.

Stage 8 - Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair

(Seniors, 65 years onwards)

Psychosocial Crisis: Ego Integrity vs. Despair Main Question: "Have I lived a full life?" Virtue: Wisdom The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals

Vygotskys Socio-Cultural Theory

Focus: Social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development. 2 Central factors in Cognitive Development Social Interaction -Effective learning happens through participation in social activities, making the social context of learning crucial. - The Significant Others in the life of the learner contribute to his growth and development Language - It serves as a way to know and understand himself, others and the world. - It enhances social interaction and help to regulate and reflect on the learners own thinking.

 When a child works alone, he may perform at a certain level of competency called the Zone of Actual Development. With the guidance of a competent adult or a more advanced peer, he can perform at a higher level of competency referred to as Zone of Proximal Development. The support or assistance given to a child that lets him accomplish a task he cannot accomplish independently is called Scaffolding. - Scaffolding is not doing the task for the child but showing him/ leading him to how it is to be done.

Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development

When confronted by situations where they need to make moral decisions, individuals exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. His theory is based on Piagets cognitive development Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of thinking through their experiences which include understanding of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality and human welfare.

Six Stages of Moral Development

Preconventional Level: Moral reasoning is based on the consequence / result of the act, not whether the act itself is good or bad. This stage is centered on the Self. - Stage 1: Punishment/ Obedience One is motivated to obey and learn of moral value by fear of punishment. - Stage 2: Mutual Benefit One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain later. It is not concerned with others but with what can fulfill ones own personal need

 Conventional Level: Moral reasoning is based on the norms of society. This stage is Otherdirected. - Stage 3: Social Approval One is motivated by what others expect in behavior. It aims to please everyone by conforming social roles. - Stage 4: Law and Order One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and order. The existing system of the society provides guidance in decision making.

 Post-conventional Level: Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent principles . It is not just recognizing the law but the principles behind the law. Stage 5: Social Contract Stage Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on social justice and the common good. There are no absolute standards. Ones opinion is always right, most especially if shared by the majority. Stage 6: Universal Principles This is associated with the development of ones conscience. The principles of social justice, respect for human rights, of dignity and equality are universal, regardless of cultural boundaries. Having a set of standards that drives one to possess moral responsibility to make societal changes regardless of consequences to oneself

Bronfenbreners BioEcological System Theory

Focus: Child development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the childs environment The model is composed of the : - microsystem/ chronosystem - mesosystem/ exosystem - macrosystem

Behavioral Theories of Learning

Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Thorndikes S-R Theory B.F. Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory

Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Theory

There are 4 elements in the theory: -Unconditioned stimulus is one that provokes a response automatically without any prior training or conditioning. -Unconditioned Response is the automatic response to a stimulus Meat (US) provokes Salivation (UR) -Conditioned Stimulus is a neutral stimulus that elicits a response when paired with the unconditioned stimulus -The ringing of the bell (neutral stimulus) when paired with meat (US) provokes salivation (UR) -Conditioned or learned response is response to a conditioned stimulus - After associating the ringing of the bell and meat, the ringing of the bell alone provokes salivation.

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Stimulus Generalization is the process by which the conditioned response transfers to other stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Discrimination-is the process by which we learn not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner. Extinction is the process by which conditioned responses are lost Spontaneous recovery- extinguished responses can be recovered after an elapsed time but will soon be extinguished again if not presented with the stimuli,

Thorndikes S-R Theory

Learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between the stimulus and response is formed. The 3 primary laws of learning: -Law of Effect : A connection between a stimulus and a response is strengthened when the consequence is positive and the connection is weakened when the consequence is negative -Law of readiness: The more ready a learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them; when a person is ready to respond but is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. -Law of exercise: The more an S-R is practiced, the stronger it becomes. Practice makes perfect but practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance

Burrhus Frederick Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant conditioning is based on the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior Operant conditioning uses pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior Reinforcement is the key element in Skinners theory Reinforcers are any consequence that strengthens a behavior Punishment is any unpleasant consequence to weaken a behavior

Types of Reinforcers Primary reinforcer vs secondary reinforcer Positive reinforcer vs Negative reinforcer Intrinsic reinforcer vs Extrinsic reinforcer Schedule of reinforcement:
Continuous given at every occurrence of behavior Intermittent- given every now and then Ratio schedule- given after a set number of responses Interval- given after the first response following a pre-determined period of elapsed time

Principles of Learning Derived from Operant Conditioning

Principle of Consequences
Behavior changes according to its immediate consequences: pleasurable consequences strengthen behavior; unpleasant weakens it

Principle of Reinforcement Reinforcement after a response increases the likelihood that the response will occur again Premack Principle or Grandmothers Rule Less desired activities can be increased by linking them to more desired activities Principle of Extinction

When reinforcement for a previously learned behavior is withdrawn, the behavior fades away

Neo-Behaviorism
Tolmans Purposive Behaviorism Banduras Social Learning Theory Why Neo Behaviorism? It has aspects of behaviorism but it also reaches out to the cognitive perspectives

Edward Tolmans Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive behaviorism is also referred to as Sign Language Theory Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing these through purposeful and goal-directed behavior. Organisms learn by pursuing signs to a goal. Learning is acquired through meaningful behavior and stressed the organized aspect of learning. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli.

Key Concepts: Tolmans Purposive Behaviorism

Learning is always purposive and goal- directed Cognitive maps help the learners to find out the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. The concept of intervening variables that are not readily seen but serve as determinants of behavior Reinforcement is not essential for learning. Although it provides incentive for performance.

Albert Banduras Social learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, thus including concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling.

General Principles of Social learning Theory

People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors Learning can occur without a change in behavior because people can learn through observation alone Cognition plays a role in learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.

Cognitive factors in Social learning

Learning without performance (latent learning) Cognitive processing during learning. Attention is a critical factor in learning. Expectations. As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. Reciprocal causation. The 3 variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each other. Modeling. There are different types of models; a live model , the actual person demonstrating the behavior and the symbolic model, a person or action portrayed using other medium.

Conditions necessary for Effective Modeling to occur

Attention- The person must first pay attention to the model Retention- The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed Motor reproduction It is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated Motivation The learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.

Cognitive Learning Theories

Gestalt Psychology Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin) Ausubels Subsumption Theory Gagnes Conditions of Learning (Cumulative Learning) Kurt Lewins Field Theory Wolfgang Kohlers Problem Solving Theory

Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology is the forefront of cognitive psychology It served as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism Learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure data in order to understand it

The Gestalt Laws or Principles

Law of Proximity. Elements that are close together will be perceived as a coherent object Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form. Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or close the figure we perceive Law of Good Continuation. Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction Law of Good Pragnanz. Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible. Law of Figure/ Ground. We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first.

Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

Stages in Information processing: Encoding when information is sensed, perceived and attended to Storage when the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time depending on the processes following encoding Retrieval when the information is brought back

Sequence of information processing

Step 1. Sensory registers- receive the large amount of information from the senses and holds it for a very short time for initial processing to the short-term memory. If nothing happens, it is lost and forgotten Step 2. Short-term or working memory- holds the limited amount of information paid attention to, organizes it for storage or for discarding and connecting to other information. Rehearsal or repetition facilitates holding the information in the short-term memory for transfer to the long-term memory Step 3. Long-term memory keeps information for long period of time and integrates it through rehearsal, elaboration, and organization with information that is already known. Executive control monitors and guides the whole process.

Methods of Increasing Retrieval of Information

Rehearsal This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud Meaningful learning This is making connections between new information and prior knowledge Organization It is making connections among various pieces of information. Elaboration This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one already knows. It is connecting new information with the old to gain meaning. Visual Imagery This means forming a picture of the information Generation Things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear Context remembering the situation helps recover information Personalization It is making the information relevant to the individual

Other Memory Aids

Serial Position Effect The beginning and the end of the list are most readily remembered Part learning- Break up the list or chunk information to increase memorization Distributed practice- Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming information in at one time Mnemonic Aids Use acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word, and association techniques to help retain information and retrieve the information effectively.

Ausubels Subsumption Theory

David Ausubel proposed the theory of meaningful verbal learning/ subsumption theory The main theme of Ausubels theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already known. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization of the learners present knowledge. This comprises his cognitive structure. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to the ideas the learner already possesses. The way to strengthen the students cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow the students to have a big picture or overview of the topics to be learned before going into the details.

Types of Advance Organizers

Expository describes the new content Narrative presents the new information in the form of a story to the students Skimming is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview Graphic organizers are visuals to set up or outline the new information.

Application of Principles on the Meaningful Learning Theory of Ausubel

The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. This is called progressive differentiation. The purpose of progressive differentiation is to increase the stability and clarity of anchoring ideas Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and crossreferencing of new an old ideas.

Gagnes Conditions of Learning (Cumulative Learning)

Robert Gagne specified that there are several different types or levels of learning. He stressed that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning. The focus of Gagnes theory is intellectual skills. The theory has also been utilized to design instruction in all domains. Each different type of learning calls for different type of instruction.

5 Categories of Learning
Verbal Information- Stating previously learned materials such as facts, concepts, principles, and procedures Intellectual skills Discriminations, distinguishing objects and their features, Higher order rules, etc. Cognitive strategies employing personal ways to guide learning, thinking, acting like constructing concept maps of topics. Attitudes Choosing personal actions based on internal states of understanding and feeling. Motor Skills Executing performance involving the use of muscles like doing dancing

9 Events of Learning
Gaining attention (reception) Informing learners of the Objectives (Expectancy) Stimulating recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval) Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) Eliciting Performance (Responding) Providing Feedback (Reinforcement) Assessing performance (Retrieval) Enhancing Retention and transfer (Generalization)

Kurt Lewins Field Theory

Focus: psychological field or the life space of the individual Life space consists of everything one needs to know about a person in order to understand his behavior in a specific psychological environment at a specific time Life space concept is not always possible to draw accurately by simple observation; it is essential to see the subjects point of view at a given moment Significance to learning: Motivation is obtained by creating psychological tensions produced by the interaction of the psychological self with the psychological situation

Wolfgang Kohlers Problem Solving Theory

Insight is the capacity to discern the true nature of a situation; it is an imaginative power to see and understand immediately Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and restructuring perceptions until a solution is arrived at The more intelligent a person is and the more experiences he has, the more he will be capable for gaining insight Every individual has the capability of looking into relationships involved in a problem and in coming up with a solution Learning is a result of insightful solutions not blind trial and error

Other Views of Learning

Constructivism: Knowledge Construction and Concept learning According to the Constructivist theory, learners must individually discover and transform complex information, checking against old rules and revising rules when they no longer work, 2 Views of Constructivism: Individual Constructivism or cognitive constructivism emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge. Social Constructivism emphasizes that knowledge exists in a social context and is initially shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of the individual

Bruners Constructivist Theory

Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism The major theme of Bruners theory is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current or prior knowledge 3 ways of representing knowledge - Enactive representation knowledge is represented by involving motor responses or manipulation - Iconic representation- learning is obtained through models and pictures or other mental images - Symbolic representation The learner makes use of abstraction or symbol system to encode knowledge usually through language and mathematical notation.

Spiral Curriculum
Bruner stressed that learning should always lead to boosting cognitive development The curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that students continually build upon what they have already learned. In a spiral curriculum, the same content is taught in different ways depending on the learners level of development

Principles of Instruction according to Bruner

Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and context that make the student willing and able to learn. (readiness) Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the students (Spiral organization) Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given)

4 Major Aspects that must be addressed by the Theory of Instruction

Predisposition to learn- Any subject can be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the childs cognitive abilities Structure of Knowledge- Structure refers to the relationships among factual elements and techniques - Categorization is a fundamental process in structuring knowledge. Details are better retained when placed in the context of an ordered and structured pattern - Fundamental patterns are best suited to generate knowledge that is transferable to other context - A body of knowledge must be simple enough for the learner to understand and should be recognizable to the childs experiences Effective Sequencing- Arrange the lesson in increasing difficulty and use the spiral curriculum to build on the information Reinforcement rewards and punishment should be selected and paced properly to serve as motivation for learning

Characteristics of Constructivism

Learners construct understanding. Constructivists view learners not as empty vessels to be filled , rather the learners are viewed as active thinkers who interpret new information based on what they already know. New learning depends on correct understanding. Background information is very important Learning is facilitated by social interactions. The aim is to create a community of learners within the classroom which makes the learners responsible for their learning. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. An authentic learning task is one that involves a learning activity that involves constructing knowledge and understanding applied in the real world.

Applying Constructivism to Facilitate Learning

Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an indepth manner, rather than taking up many topics superficially Give varied examples Provide opportunities for experimentation Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction Have lots of hands-on activities Relate the topic to real life situations Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.

Metacognitive Theory of Learning

Metacognition is simply thinking about thinking Metacognition was first introduced by John Flavell It is the self-monitoring process that occurs in working memory as information is analyzed prior to further action It consists of awareness not only of what to do to perform a task effectively but when and how various cognitive processes can be employed so that successful learning occurs 2 components: meta-comprehension- knowledge about and regulation of our understanding( thinking about procedures) metamemory- memory of knowledge and rules

Metacognitive Learning
How Learning is acquired -Knowledge of ones or others success -Analysis of goals of the cognitive task -Analysis of strategies employed in performing the task -Experiences that accompany attempts at metacognition

Transfer of Learning
Transfer of Learning happens when learning in one context or with one set of materials affects performance in another context or with other related materials Transfer of learning is usually aimed at making the concepts learned in class be applied in real life.

Types of Transfer
-Positive transfer occurs when learning in one context improves the performance in another context - Negative transfer occurs when learning in one context impacts negatively on the performance in another context - Near transfer or specific transfer is a transfer between similar contexts - Far transfer or general transfer refers to transfer between contexts that may seem remote to one another.

Principles of Transfer
Similarity between two learning situations -The more similar the two situations are, the greater the chances that learning from one situation will be transferred to the other situation. Degree of meaningfulness/relevance of learning -Meaningful learning leads to greater transfer than rote learning Length of instructional time -The longer the time spent in instruction, the greater the probability of transfer Variety of learning experiences -The longer the time spent in instruction, the greater the probability of transfer Context for learners experience -Transfer is most likely to happen when learners discover that what they learned is applicable to various situations Focus on principles rather than task -Principles transfer easier than task Emphasis on metacognition -Student reflection improves transfer of learning

Effective Questioning Techniques

Pose the questions first before asking a student to respond. Allow plenty of think time by waiting for 7-10 seconds before expecting students to respond. Give all students the opportunity to respond and dont rely only on volunteers. Hold students accountable by expecting, requiring and facilitating their participation and contribution -Establish a safe atmosphere for risk taking by guiding the students in the process of learning from their mistakes ( Build the confidence of students by giving follow-up questions to help them self-correct their errors)

Torrance Framework for Creative Thinking

Fluency refers to the production of a great number of ideas or alternate solutions to a problem. Fluency implies understanding, not just remembering information learned Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of possibilities or realms of thought. It involves the ability to see things from different points of view, to use different approaches or strategies. Elaboration is the process of enhancing ideas by providing more details. Additional details and clarity improve interest in and understanding of the topic. Originality involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual. It involves synthesis or putting information about the topic in a new way.

Principles for Facilitating Problem Solving

Recognizing difficulties in a situation Assist the students to determine the significant problems, issues and restating the problems Delimiting the problem Guide students in analyzing the situations related to the problem Use new methods to arrive at a conclusion Help students to locate more information and acquire the necessary background to deal with the problem Generalize possible solutions through applying knowledge and methods in problem solving Lead students to process the available information or data to determine the possible solutions Solve the problem through inferring and testing hypotheses Train the students to develop the skill in formulating hypotheses and testing them to lead to the solution of the problem

Steps in Problem Solving

Identify the problem Define the problem through thinking about it and sorting out the relevant information Explore solutions through looking at alternatives, brainstorming and checking out different points of view Act on the strategies Look back and evaluate the effects of the activity

Motivation: Types and Theories

Basic Concepts: -Motivation is an inner drive that energizes a learner to do what he is expected to do. - It is that inner drive that makes the learner desire to do something or to avoid others - A learners level of motivation is reflected in his choice of action, and in the intensity and persistence of his effort. A highly motivated learner accomplishes and performs well in contrast to an unmotivated or a poorly motivated one who seems not to have the desire to accomplish things or perform well. A highly motivated learner enjoys learning and persists and perseveres even when things get difficult.

Types of Motivation
- Intrinsic motivation comes from within the person himself. It is an individuals internal desire to perform a particular task. Example: ones goal or ambition - Extrinsic motivation comes from something or someone outside the person. It is promoted by factors external to the person and unrelated to the task being performed. Example: High grades, scholarship, monetary reward

Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory/ Genetic Pattern- Motivation is built into everyone through heredity. It is the result of inherited and innate instincts. Association theory (Thorndike) Deprivation of need will cause the individual to act to satisfy the need. Psycho-analytic or Drive Theory (Freud) Individuals behave as they do because their early experiences drive them instinctively to do so. Humanistic or Need gratification theory (Maslow) An individual does something to satisfy deficiency needs. Cognitive Theory (Hunt) man is rational and consciously decides what he will and will not do. Motives, curiosity, intention, motive to achieve success and goals activate and direct the individual to action.

Theories of Motivation
Attribution theory (Heidereck) People seek to understand why they succeed or fail. Self-efficacy Theory (Bandura) The key to individual achievement lies with the learners own belief in his ability to organize and execute actions required for a successful performance. Self-determination Theory (Deci) An attitude of determination is the foundation for motivated behavior.

Factors Affecting Motivation

Students motivation may vary on account of age, gender, cultural and socioeconomic background. The students motivational drives reflect the elements of the culture in which they grow up their family, friends, school, church, organizations, etc. If environment is the totality of ones surroundings, then the environmental factors that affect student motivation include human factors (Teachers, parents, siblings, peers) and non-human factors ( home environment, class atmosphere, community situation) The teachers affective characteristics as well as his social and emotional behaviors, more than pedagogical practice, facilitate learning. The sense of belongingness in the class enhances students learning and performance. Parents behavioral traits and the support they give to their children are contributory to the students learning. The classroom climate that is conducive for learning greatly influences learning

Student Diversity
Individual Differences Learning/Thinking Styles Multiple Intelligences Learners with Exceptionalities

Tips in Handling Student Diversity

Encourage learners to share personal history and experiences. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students multicultural and cross-cultural awareness. Identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles. Vary the examples used to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse background Adapt to the diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them to make a choice on what they will learn and how they will learn. Diversify methods of assessing and evaluating student learning Form small discussion groups, putting together students with diverse backgrounds

Learning/ Thinking Styles

Sensory preferences: Visual learners learns best by seeing the material; thus, the use of AV aids will be helpful - Visual-iconic prefers visual imagery like films, graphic displays, etc -Visual-symbolic prefers abstract symbolism like reading, math formulas, etc. Auditory learners learn best by hearing - Listeners learn best by reviewing in their heads what they hear - Talkers prefer to talk and discuss Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. Benefit much from hands-on approach, actively exploring the world around them

Learning/ Thinking Styles

Right brain/Left-brain: Analytic tend to see finite elements of pattern rather than the whole. Global tend to see the whole patters rather than particular elements

Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)

Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) seeing concepts in action to understan them Verbal/Linguistic (Word smart) Learning through the spoken or written word Mathematical/ logical (number smart, logic smart)- learn through reasoning and problem solving Musical (Music smart)- learning through patterns, rhythm and music

Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)

Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body smart) learning through interaction with ones environment Intrapersonal (self smart) learning through ones feeling, values and attitudes Interpersonal (people smart) learning through interaction with others Naturalist (nature smart) learning through classification, hierarchies in nature Existential (spirit smart) learning by seeing connections with the real world

Learners with Exceptionalities

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

cognitive processes that are not due to mental retardation or emotional disorder. - dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia(number operation), dysgraphia (writing) Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)difficulty in maintaining attention and recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior Speech and Communication disorders voice disorders, stuttering

-Learning Disabilities involve difficulties in specific

Learners with Exceptionalities

Emotional/Conduct Disorder involves the presence of emotional states like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time Autism condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests Bipolar disorder Mental retardation significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

Teaching Strategies to facilitate Learning guided by Student Diversity

Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking Provide a general overview of the material to be learned Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experiences Warm up before the lesson development through active learning activities Use multisensory means of both processing and retrieving information Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising

The Four Pillars of Learning (UNESCO)

Learning to be aims for complete development of mind and body - aims for the complete fulfillment of man in all the aspects of his personality - is equivalent to learning to understand the right to self-identification and selfdefinition Learning to Know - is concerned less with the acquisition of structured knowledge than with the mastery of learning tools - equates with learning how to learn by developing concentration, memory, and thinking skills - involves the right to self-knowledge Learning to Do - is related to occupational training that is adapted to the types of work needed in the environment - emphasizes the knowledge component of tasks including the importance of services in the economy - equates with the right to self-development Learning to Live Together - emphasize that education should adopt two complementary approaches - teach students about human diversity and to instill in them the awareness of the similarities and interdependence of all people - involves the recognition of the rights of others - equivalent to the right to self-determination