Cell Division

Chapter 5

Why does a cell divide?

-As a cell absorbs nutrients and gets larger, the volume of the cell increases faster than the surface area.

-Therefore, the demands of the cell (the volume) exceed the ability of the cell to bring in nutrients and export wastes. Solution? Divide into two smaller cells

Cell Increase and Decrease

Cell division:
Mitosis (division of nucleus or karyokinesis) Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)

Apoptosis (cell death) decreases the number of cells. Both cell increase and apoptosis occur during normal development and growth.

Cell Division, Cell Death

Functions

of Cell Division

Mitosis
Increase Wound

number of somatic cells Amoeba

healing Asexual reproduction

Meiosis
Production

of gametes (germ cells, sperm and eggs)

ApoptosisProgrammed cell death

Asexual reproduction 2

Hydra

The cell cycle

Interphase3 Stages
G1

stage

cell growth cell doubles its organelles accumulates materials for DNA synthesis
S

stage

DNA synthesis occurs DNA replication results in duplicated chromosomes

G2

stage

cell synthesizes proteins needed for cell division

Chromosomes
Chromosome Condensed chromatin

Homologous Chromosomes

Same size Same genes in the same order

Chromosome pairs, one from mom, one from dad

a. Diploid number (2n) - total number of chromosomes

in a cell (somatic cells) b. Haploid number (n) - only one homologue of each chromosome is present (gametes)

The Big Picture

The Cell Cycle

Interphase (90% of

G1 phase~ growth S phase~ synthesis of DNA G2 phase~ preparation for cell division
cycle)

Mitotic

Mitosis~ nuclear division Cytokinesis~ cytoplasm division

phase

The Mitotic Stage

interphase is the M stage, including mitosis and cytokinesis. During mitosis, sister chromatids of each chromosome separate. The cell cycle ends when cytokinesis, the cleaving of the cytoplasm, is complete.
Following

Figure 5.30 The DNA double helix and its replication

In mitosis each chromosome is replicated and then divides

Duplicated Chromosome
Sister chromatids attached at centromere Sister chromatids separate during cell division

PLOIDY
- number of copies of each chromosome - also number of genomes Haploid (N)= one set of unpaired chromosomes Diploid (2N or 2n)= one set of paired chromosomes Triploid = three copies of each chromosome Tetraploid = four copies of each chromosome Hexaploid = six copies of each chromosome Etc, etc, etc
Ploidy

Chloroplasts have their own DNA, separate from plant nuclear DNA, derived from their cyanobacterial origin

Most eukaryotes also have a mitochondrial genome, derived from a eubacterial endosymbiont ancestor

Human mtDNA 37 genes, 16 kilobasepairs

Apoptosis
Apoptosis

cell death. Function?

- programmed

Mitosis Overview
1

diploid (2N) cell>>>>2 diploid (2N)cells Genetically identical daughter cells Function---Maintain the somatic cell chromosome number

Mitosis Overview

Chromosome Distribution

Spindle and Fibers

Spindle made of? microtubules that

disassemble and assemble.

Centrosomes (MTOC) function? Types of Fibers

Polar Spindle Fibers Centomeric (kinetochore) fibers Asters

Phases of Mitosis
Prophase

Metaphase
Anaphase Telophase Pretty

Men Are Tough Overview

As cell enters mitosis from interphase it has 2 complete sets of chromosomes because of replication in the S phase. Each set must be re-arranged and distributed into the 2 new daughter nuclei. This is mitosis.

Late Interphase

Early Prophase

Late Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Review

Results of Mitosis
Two Each

daughter nuclei

with same chromosome number as parent cell identical to each other and the parent cell

Genetically

CYTOKINESIS Cytoplasm splits into 2 cells.

-Animal cells: Cleavage furrow forms from outside in.

Plant cells: Division plate forms from inside out.

Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

Cytokinesis in plant cells

REVIEW OF MITOSIS
Parent Cell

Remember: Mitosis Is Part Of The Cell Cycle!!

DNA Synthesis (S Phase)

Mitosis & Cytokinesis

Two daughter cells

Parent cell and daughter cells contain the same complement of chromosomes.

Cell Division in Prokaryotes

Binary

fission---process of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes. Two daughter cells Identical to the original parent cell and each other All contain a single chromosome.

The Big Picture

Overview of Meiosis
1

diploid (2N) cell>>>>4 haploid (1N) cells Genetically unique daughter cells Function---reduce the chromosome number by The main source of genetic diversity in sexually reproducing organisms

MEIOSIS
Two Parts:
Meiosis

I:

Separation of homologous pairs Ploidy Level?

Meiosis

II:

Separation of sister chromatids Ploidy Level?

COMPARISON-- MITOSIS and MEIOSIS

Mitosis:
Occurs in somatic (body) cells Growth, development, replacement & repair Produces 2 daughter cells
Clones

Meiosis:
Occurs in germ cells (immature reproductive cells) Production of gametes (sex cells) Produce 4 daughter cells
Distinct

other

of parent and each

other

from parent and each

Daughter cells are diploid (2N)

Daughter cells are haploid (1N)

Genetic Recombination
Meiosis increases genetic diversity. Two points of genetic recombination. Crossing-over of nonsister chromatidsProphase 1 Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes during Metaphase 1

Synapsis and crossing-over

Defs

More Terminology
Crossing Over
Segments

of paternal/maternal chromatids exchange during Meiosis I of homologs coming together physically during Meiosis I
of 4 sister chromatids from 2 homologous chromosomes

Synapsis
Process

Tetrad
Consists

Independent assortment

Meiosis in Detail
Phases

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase telophase

Interkinesis. Replication

of DNA??

Meiosis I in an animal cell

Meiosis II

Sources of Genetic Variation

Three sources of genetic recombination:

1) Independent alignment metaphase I 2) Crossing-over---prophase I 3) Fertilization

SUMMARY-- MITOSIS and MEIOSIS

Mitosis:
Occurs in somatic (body) cells Growth, development, replacement & repair Produces 2 daughter cells
Clones

Meiosis:
Occurs in germ cells (immature reproductive cells)
Production of gametes (sex cells) Produce 4 daughter cells
Distinct

other

of parent and each

other

from parent and each

Daughter cells are diploid (2N)

comparison

Daughter cells are haploid (1N)

Meiosis compared to mitosis

Life cycle of humans

Spermatogenesis

Oogenesis

FERTILIZATION RESTORES FULL SET OF CHROMOSOMES

Female gamete Male gamete

fertilization

Diploid zygote contains homologous pairs of chromosomes

Sources of Genetic Variation

Three sources of genetic recombination:

1) Independent assortment metaphase I 2) Crossing-over---prophase I 3) Fertilization

MEIOSIS & GENETIC VARIATION

Independent Assortment

Diploid organisms can produce 2n diff. gametes

Each homologous pair can orient in either of two ways

Ea. homologous pair can orient in two different ways Humans: 223 = 8,388,608 (est. 8.4 million)

HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLE OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Eye color Hair color Gene for brown eyes Gene for blue eyes

Gene for black hair

Gene for red hair

During meiosis I, tetrads can line up 2n different ways.

INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

OR

Meiosis I & II

Brown eyes Black hair

Blue eyes Red hair

Brown eyes Red hair

Blue eyes Black hair

MEIOSIS & GENETIC VARIATION

Crossing Over:
Physical exchange of sections of chromosomes Results in shuffling of genome

New combo of genes on chromosomes (recombination) A single crossover in each homologous pair = 5.0 x 10 27 different zygotes possible (4951,760,200,000,000,000,000,000, 000)!

MEIOSIS & GENETIC VARIATION

Random Fertilization: Each human can produce an nearly 8.4 million different kinds of gametes
Crossing

over not taken into account!!!

Sex

yields:
8.4

mill x 8.4 mill = 70.6 x 10 12 genetically distinct offspring can be produced

SUMMARY-- MITOSIS and MEIOSIS

Mitosis:
Occurs in somatic (body) cells Growth, development, replacement & repair Produces 2 daughter cells
Clones

Meiosis:
Occurs in germ cells (immature reproductive cells)
Production of gametes (sex cells) Produce 4 daughter cells
Distinct

other

of parent and each

other

from parent and each

Daughter cells are diploid (2N)

comparison

Daughter cells are haploid (1N)