Respiratory System

Conductive Structures in the Lung


Your lungs contain almost 1500 miles of
airways and over 300 million alveoli

Bronchi
− Conductive structures of a size down to ~1
mm
− main bronchi: a result of the bifurcation of the
lung

Their histological structure corresponds
largely to that of the trachea.

divide into lobar bronchi which in turn give
rise to segmental bronchi (tertiary).
− segmental bronchi: supply the bronchopulmonary
segments of the lungs

Bronchial branches
are accompanied by
branches of the
pulmonary artery,
nerves and lymph
vessels.

These structures
usually travel in
intersegmental and
interlobar sheets of
connective tissue

bronchi are
characterized by the
presence of glands
and supporting
cartilage. The
cartilage supporting
the bronchi is
typically found in
several small pieces.

The histological structure of the epithelium and
the underlying connective tissue of the bronchi
corresponds largely to that of the trachea and
the main bronchi

In addition, bronchi are surrounded by a layer
of smooth muscle, which is located between the
cartilage and epithelium.

Bronchioles
− smaller than ~1 mm
− are the terminal segments
of the conductive portion.
− epithelium change to a
ciliated columnar
epithelium, but most of the
cell types found in the
epithelium of other parts of
the conductive portion are
still present.
− Glands and cartilage are
absent. The layer of
smooth muscle is relatively
thicker than in the bronchi.
Respiratory Structures in the Lung

respiratory bronchioles
− result from the division of the bronchioles
− are the first structures that belong to the respiratory
portion of the respiratory system

alveoli
− Small outpouchings of the walls of the respiratory
bronchioles
− the site of gas exchange
− The number increases as the respiratory
bronchioles continue to divide.
− They terminate in alveolar ducts. The "walls" of
alveolar ducts consists entirely of alveoli.
 Histological Structure of Alveoli

The wall is formed by a
thin sheet (~2µm) of
tissue separating two
neighbouring alveoli.

This sheet is formed by
epithelial cells and
intervening connective
tissue.

Collagenous (few and
fine), reticular and elastic
fibers are present.
microscopic view of alveoli

Between the connective tissue fibers we
find a dense, anastomosing network of
pulmonary capillaries whose walls are
in direct contact with the epithelial lining
of the alveoli.

The basal laminae of the epi- and
endothelium may actually fuse.
Neighbouring alveoli may be connected
to each other by small alveolar pores

The epithelium of the alveoli is formed by two
cell types:
− Alveolar type I cells
− Alveolar type II cells

Alveolar type I cells (small alveolar cells or type
I pneumocytes)
− are extremely flattened (the cell may be as thin as
0.05 µm) and form the bulk (95%) of the surface of
the alveolar walls.
− The shape of the cells is very complex, and they
may actually form part of the epithelium on both
faces of the alveolar wall.

Alveolar type II cells (large alveolar cells or
type II pneumocytes)
− are irregularly (sometimes cuboidal) shaped.
− They form small bulges on the alveolar walls.
− contain large number of granules called cytosomes
(or multilamellar bodies), which consist of
precursors to pulmonary surfactant (the mixture of
phospholipids which keep surface tension in the
alveoli low).
− Their small contribution to alveolar area is
explained by their shape.

Cilia are absent from the alveolar epithelium
and cannot help to remove particulate matter
which continuously enters the alveoli with the
inspired air.

Alveolar macrophages take care of this job.
They migrate freely over the alveolar epithelium
and ingest particulate matter. Towards the end
of their life span, they migrate either towards
the bronchioles, where they enter the mucus
lining the epithelium to be finally discharged
into the pharynx, or they enter the connective
tissue septa of the lung.
 Development of the Lungs

The formation of the lower respiratory passages
begins in the fourth fetal week.

An outpouching of the foregut gives rise to the
laryngotracheal tube. The lining of this tube will
eventually give rise to the epithelia covering the
surfaces of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
and alveoli.

Most of the other tissues of the lower respiratory
passages are derived from splanchnic mesoderm.

The laryngotracheal tube divides distally to form two
lung buds.

Dependent of the state of maturity of the lung,
development is divided into three periods:
− glandular period

lasts until ~17th fetal week

bronchi grow and branch

no alveoli present yet
− canalicular period

Bronchi and bronchioles expand and branch

lung tissue is vascularized

Bronchi and bronchioli begin to form terminal sacs
(developing primitive alveoli)

Respiration becomes possible towards the end of this
period around the 25th foetal week.

alveolar period (sometimes also considered a separate
period of lung development and called terminal sac
period)
− number of terminal sacs increases during initial period
− capillary network is developing between the terminal
sacs.
− The late alveolar period is marked by the development
of mature alveoli from the terminal sacs. The period
begins shortly before birth, but the first mature alveoli
appear only after birth.
− Alveolar sacs continue to be formed during early
childhood (up to year 8) and mature into alveoli.
Alveolar maturation and growth continue for another
decade, but their numbers do not increase further.
 Miscellaneous


Why Do I Yawn?
− When you are sleepy or drowsy the lungs do not
take enough oxygen from the air. This causes a
shortage of oxygen in our bodies. The brain senses
this shortage of oxygen and sends a message that
causes you to take a deep long breath---a YAWN.

It is possible that yawns are contagious because
at one time in evolutionary history, the yawn
served to coordinate the social behavior of a group
of animals.

When one member of the group yawned to signal
an event, all the other members of the group also
yawned.

Yawns may still be contagious these days
because of a leftover response (a "vestigial"
response) that is not used anymore.

None of this has been proven true and yawns are
still one of the mysteries of the mind.

New Word: Pandiculation

Pandiculation is the act of stretching and

yawning.

Why Do I Sneeze?
− Sneezing is like a cough
in the upper breathing
passages. It is the body's
way of removing an
irritant from the sensitive
mucous membranes of
the nose. Many things
can irritate the mucous
membranes. Dust, pollen,
pepper or even a cold
blast of air are just some
of the many things that
may cause you to
sneeze.

What Causes Hiccups?
− Hiccups are the sudden movements
of the diaphragm. It is involuntary ---
you have no control over hiccups, as
you well know. There are many
causes of hiccups. The diaphragm
may get irritated, you may have
eaten to fast, or maybe some
substance in the blood could even
have brought on the hiccups.