Chapter 9: Manufactured Substances in Industry

Understand the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Synthesize the manufacture of ammonia and its salt. Understand alloys. Uses of synthetic polymers. Apply the uses of glass and ceramics. Evaluate the uses of composite materials. Appreciate various synthetic industrial materials.

SULPHURIC ACID
Sulphuric acid is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H2SO4. Sulphuric acid is a diprotic acid. Sulphuric acid has a wide range of applications.
manufacturing fertiliser manufacturing detergent manufacturing pesticide manufacturing synthetic fibre as electrolyte in lead-acid accumulator removing metal oxide manufacturing paint

Manufacture of Sulphuric acid in industry

Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is manufactured in industry through Contact Process. The raw materials used are sulphur, air and water The Contact process consists of four stages. Stage 1 Molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide. The gas produced is then purified and cooled. S+O2SO2 Sulphur dioxide can also be produced by burning metal sulphide such as lead(II) sulphide or zinc sulphide in dry air. 2PbS+3O22PbO+2SO2

Stage 2 In a converter, sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen are passed through vanadium(V) oxide. vanadium(V) oxide act as catalyst to expedite the process. The optimum condition for maximum amount of product are as follow:
Temperature: 450 500 C Pressure: 2 3 atm

About 99.5% of the sulphur dioxide, SO2 is converted into sulphur trioxide, SO3 through this reversible reaction.

Stage 3 Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form oleum H2S2O7. SO3+H2SO4H2S2O7 Stage 4 The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 in large quantities. H2S2O7+H2O2H2SO4

Environmental and health issue.

Sulphur dioxide, SO2 is one of the by-products of the Contact Process. It is one of the source of environmental pollution.

Acid Rain
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is the pollutant primarily associated with acid rain. Acid rain occurs when pH of the rain is between 2.4 and 5.0. This is due to the reaction of sulphur dioxide, SO2 with rainwater. SO2+H2OH2SO3 The negative effect of acid rains include: corrosion of concrete building and metal structure. corrosion of monuments and statues made from marble causes erosion of top soil. killing aquatic life.

Health Effects

SO2 is an irritant when it is inhaled and at high concentrations may cause severe problems in asthmatics such as narrowing of the airways, known as bronchoconstriction. Asthmatics are considerably more sensitive to the effects of SO2 than other individuals. Sources of SO2 The principal source of SO2 is from the combustion of fossil fuels in domestic premises and more importantly, non-nuclear power stations. Other industrial processes such as manufacturing of sulphuric acid also contribute to the presence of SO2 in the air.

AMMONIA
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. Ammonia is a very important compound in industry. Although in wide use, ammonia is both corrosive and hazardous. Uses of Ammonia manufacturing nitrogenous fertilisers as cooling agent in refrigerator to prevent coagulation of latex as raw material to manufacture nitric acid (Ostwald process) to make explosive as cleaning agent to remove grease

 Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber Process.

MANUFACTURING AMMONIA : Haber Process

In Haber process, nitrogen gas, N2 from the air is mixed with hydrogen gas, H2 derived mainly from natural gas. The mixture is compressed to a high pressure of 200 atmosphere at a temperature of about 450C. Iron is used as catalyst to speed up the rate of reaction. Chemical equation below shows the reaction. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) About 98% of mixture are converted into ammonia, NH3. The unreacted nitrogen gas, N2 and hydrogen gas, H2 are recycled and passed back into the reactor together with the new source of nitrogen gas, N2, and hydrogen gas, H2.

Characteristics of ammonia
Ammonia gas can turn a moist red litmus paper to blue. As an alkali, ammonia can react with acid to form salt and water.
Example: H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4NO3(aq) H3PO4(aq) + 3NH3(aq) (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ammonia dissolve into water to form ammonium and hydroxide ion. NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OHThe hydroxide ion can react with positive ions to form precipitate.
Example: Mg2+ + 2OH- Mg(OH)2 Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 Al3+ + 3OH- Al(OH)2

Test for Ammonia

Ammonia is the only common alkaline gas, so it can be identified with moist red litmus paper turning blue. Concentrated ammonia when reacts with concentrated hydrochloric acid produces white fume. Ammonia gas + Hydrogen chloride gas ammonium chloride NH3 (g) + HCl (g) NH4Cl

Properties of ammonia
Colourless Pungent smell Less dense than air Very soluble in water Alkaline gas Form white fume with hydrogen chloride.

ALLOY
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals mixed in a certain percentage. Most pure metals are weak and soft. The properties of pure metals can be improved by making them into alloys. Alloys are made to increase the hardness of metals. Example: Magnalium is made from aluminium and magnesium to improve the hardness of the pure metals but at the same time, maintaining their lightness. prevent the corrosion of metals. Stainless steel which can resist rusting is made by adding carbon, chromium and nickel to iron. improve the beauty and lustre of metals. Copper and antimony added to tin produces pewter, used to make decorative items.

 Weak and soft. -contain atoms of same size regular and orderly arrangement.

Pure metal

When force is applied, layers of atoms in pure metal slide. So, metals are ductile.

There are empty space between the atoms. When it is knocked, the shape of the metal changes. So, metals are malleable.

Examples of alloy
Examples of copper base alloy are
a. Cupro-nickel b. Bronze c. Brass

Most copper base alloy has shiny surface

Cupro-nickel Component: Cu 75%, Ni 25% Applications: Coins

Bronze Component: Cu 90%, Sn 10% Applications: Decorative items, medals, artwork, pots and pans

Brass Component: Cu 70%, Zn 30% Applications: Decorative items, electrical appliances, musical instruments, bell, nails, screw, pots

1.Examples of iron base alloy are

a. steel b. stainless steel c. manganese steel

2.The iron base alloys are usually very hard Steel Component: Fe 99%, C 1% Applications: Vehicles, ships, bridges, buildings Stainless steel Component: Fe73%, Cr 18%, Ni 8%, C 1% Applications: Kitchen appliances, watches, machine parts, knives, forks, spoons

Manganese steel Component: Fe 85%, Mn 13.8%, C 1.2% Applications: Helmet, spring

Examples of aluminium base alloy are

Duralumin Magnalium

Aluminium has low density, hence the density of aluminium base alloy is also low. Duralumin Component: Al 95%, Cu 4%, Mg 1% Applications: Aeroplane parts, electric cables, racing bicycles Magnalium Component: Al 70%, Mg 30% Applications: Tyre rim of racing cars, skeletal body of aeroplanes

1.Examples of tin base alloy are

a. pewter b. solder

2.Most tin base alloy has shiny surface and low melting point.
Pewter Component: Sn 91%, Sb 7%, Cu 2% Applications: Decorative items, souvenirs Solder Component: Sn 50%, Pb 50% Applications: Welding and soldering work

POLYMERS
1.Polymer is a large molecule that is in the form of a long chain with a high relative molecular mass (RMM). 2.It is made up of many smaller units called monomers -- joined together through a process called polymerisation. 3.Thus the monomer is actually the repetitive unit of a long polymer chain. 4.There are two types of polymers:
a. Natural polymers b. Synthetic polymers

Natural Polymers 1.These occur naturally in living things. Some examples of natural polymers are:
a. Natural rubber b. Protein in meat, leather, silk, hair and fur c. Carbohydrates in cellulose, starch and sugar

2.Natural polymers are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.

Synthetic Polymers 1.Synthetic polymer is a polymer that is manufactured in industry from chemical substances through the polymerisation process. 2.Examples of synthetic polymers are:
a. plastics b. synthetic fibres c. elastomers -- elastic polymer / rubber

3.The two types of polymerisation are:

a. polymerisation by addition b. polymerisation by condensation

By addition:

Polymerisation

Polymerisation by addition involves monomers with >C = C< bonding, where the monomers join together to make a long chain without losing any simple molecules from it.

By condensation: Polymerisation by condensation involves the elimination of small molecules like water, methanol, ammonia or hydrogen chloride during the process. Examples of products of this process are terylene and nylon-66.

Examples of synthetic polymer

Plastics
Plastics are light, strong and do not react with any chemical substances, like acids and alkalis. They can be made into many shapes and sizes. They are also good insulators of heat and electricity.

Examples of Plastics:

1. Polythene (polyethylene) Structure

Monomer: Ethene Produced by polymerisation: Addition Uses: Plastic bags containers and cups Advantages: light and strong

2. Polyvinyl chloride or PVC (polychloroethene)

Structure

Monomer: Chloroethene Produced by polymerisation: Addition Uses: Raincoat, Pipes to insulate electric wires Advantages: can be coloured; heat resistant

3. Polystyrene (polyphenylethene)
Structure

Monomer: Phenylethene Produced by polymerisation: Addition Uses: Packaging materials, children toys, ball-point pens, as heat and electric insulators Advantages: light and strong

4. Perspex (polymethyl 2-methyl propenoate)

Structure

Monomer: Methyl-2-methylpropenoate Produced by polymerisation: Addition Uses: Aeroplane window panes, Lenses, car lamp covers Advantages: light, strong, translucent, stable towards sunlight

5. Polypropene
Structure

Monomer: Propene Produced by polymerisation: Addition Uses: Plastics, Bottles, plastic tables and chairs Advantages: strong and light

6. Teflon (polytetrafluoroethene or PTFE)

Structure

Monomer: Tetrafluoroethene

Produced by polymerisation: Addition Uses: To make non-sticky pots and pans Advantages: hard, can withstand high temperatures and corrosives chemicals

Synthetic Rubber Synthetic rubber is an elastomer or polymer which regains its size original shape after being pulled or pressed. [Natural rubber is an elastomer too.] Examples of synthetic rubber are neoprene and styrene-butadiene(SBR).
1. Neoprene Structure

Monomer: Chloroprene Produced by polymerisation: Addition Uses: to make rubber gloves and to insulate electric wires.

2. Styrene-butadiene or SBR
Structure

Monomer: Styrene and butan-1,3-diene Produced by polymerisation: Addition Uses: to make tyres, soles of shoes and mechanical belts.

Synthetic Fibre Nylon and terylene are synthetic fibres which undergo the condensation polymerisation process. These fibres resemble natural fibres but more resistant to stress and chemicals, and more long-lasting. In both cases, water is eliminated during the polymerisation process.

1. Nylon
Structure

Monomer: Produced by polymerisation: Condensation Uses: To make umbrellas, carpets, comb, curtains, nylon string and rope, socks, toothbrush and so on.

2. Terylene
Structure

Monomer:

Produced by polymerisation: Condensation Uses: To make fishing nets, clothes (quick-dry, non-iron), cassette and video tapes.

Issue in Using Synthetic Polymers

1.Synthetic polymers have multiple uses in daily life because of the following properties:
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Light and strong Relatively cheap Withstand corrosion and chemical reaction Withstand action of water Non-flammable Can be coloured easily Easily mould to shape

2.Synthetic polymers are also used to replace natural polymers such as cotton, silk and rubber.

3. However, synthetic polymers cause environmental pollution.

a) Most polymers are not biodegradable . b) The open burning of plastics gives rise to poisonous and acidic gases like carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen cyanide. These are harmful to the environment as they cause acid rain. a) Burning of plastics can also produce carbon dioxide--- too much of this gas in the atmosphere leads to the `greenhouse effect'.

4. These problem can be overcome by the following ways:

a) Recycling polymers: Plastics can be decomposed by heating them without oxygen at 700C. This process is called pyrolysis. The products of this process are then recycled into new products. b) Inventing biodegradable polymers: Such polymers should be mixed with substances that can be decomposed by bacteria (to become biodegradable) or light (to become photodegradable).

Glass and Ceramics

1.Referred to as transparent, shiny substance. 2.The most important component of glass and ceramics is silica ( silicon(IV) dioxide, SiO2). 3.Both glass and ceramic have the following properties:
a. b. c. d. e. Hard and brittle Do not conduct heat electricity Inactive towards chemical reactions Weak when pressure is applied Can be cleaned easily

Glass
It is a mixture of two or more types of metallic silicates but the main component is silicon(IV) dioxide.
Glass has the following properties: Transparent and not porous Inactive chemically Can be cleaned easily Good insulators of heat and electricity Hard but brittle Can withstand compression but not pressure

Soda lime,glass Composition: SiO2 70%, Na2O 15%, CaO 10%, Others 4% Properties:
Low melting point (700C) Moldable into shapes Cheap Breakable Can withstand high heat

Lead glass (crystal) Composition: SiO2 70%, Na2O 20%, PbO 10% Properties:
High density and refractive index Glittering surface Soft Low melting point (600C) Denser

Uses: Glass containers, Glass panes, Mirrors, Lamps and bulbs, Plates and bowls Bottles Made by heating sand (silica) with lime stone and Na2CO3

Uses: Containers for drinks and fruit, Decorative glass and lamps, Crystal glassware, Lenses for spectacles. Made by substituting lead oxide for calcium oxide.

Borosilicate glass (Pyrex) Composition: SiO2 80%, B2O3 13%, Na2O 4%, AI203 2% Properties:
Resistant to high heat and chemical reaction Does not break easily Allows infra-red rays but not ultraviolet rays

Fused silicate glass Composition: SiO2 99%, Other - 1% Properties:

High melting point (1700C) Expensive Allows ultraviolet light to pass through Difficult to melt or mould into shape

Uses: Glass apparatus in laboratories, Cooking utensils

Uses: Scientific apparatus like lenses on, spectrometer, Optical lenses, Laboratory apparatus

Ceramics
Ceramic is a substance that is made from clay and hardened by heat in a furnace maintained at a high temperature. Clay is composed of aluminosilicate with sand and iron(III) oxide as impurities. Examples of ceramics include
Tiles Cement Bricks porcelain

The differences between the properties of ceramics, metals and non-metals are given below
Property Hardness Metals Hard but malleable and ductile Non-metals Soft and brittle Ceramic Hard but brittle

Density
Melting point Resistance to heat Heat and Electrical conductivity Chemical reactions

High
High High Good conductor Corrodes

Low
Low Low Good insulator Corrodes

Average
Very high Very high Good insulator Stable, does not corrode

Comparing Glass and Ceramic

New Uses of Glass and Ceramics

Photochromic Glass Photochromic glass is very sensitive to light. It darkens in the presence of bright light and lightens when the amount of sunlight lessens. Conductive Glass

Conducting glass is a type of glass which can conduct electricity. It is obtained by coating a thin layer of a conducting material around the glass, usually indium tin(IV) oxide. It is used in the making of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Car Engine Block When clay is heated with magnesium oxide, the ceramic that is produced has a high resistance to heat. This material is used to build the engine blocks in cars as they can withstand high temperatures.

Superconductors Superconductors are electrical conductors which have almost zero (0) electrical resistance. Therefore, this conductor minimises the loss of electrical energy through heat. Yttrium barium copper oxide is a type of ceramic superconductor Superconductors are used to make magnets which are light but thousands of times stronger than the normal magnet.

Composite Materials
Composite materials are substances which contain 2 or more materials that combine to produce new substances with different physical properties from the original substances. Wood and bones are examples of natural composite materials. Wood consists of strong and flexible cellulose fibres surrounded and held together by stiffer material called lignin. Bone is made up of living cells in a matrix of collagen fibres and calcium salts.

Reinforced Concrete Component: Concrete (cement, sand, stones), steel Ordinary concrete is strong but heavy. Concrete pillars must be big to support the weight. They take up space and cannot withstand stress for example from earthquakes. Steel pillars are too expensive and can rust. Reinforced concrete, containing steel rods in the concrete pillars, can make them stronger and able to support larger loads. It also does not rust.

Optical Fibre Component: SiO2, Na2CO3, CaO

This is a fine transparent glass tube that is made of molten glass. In telecommunications, light has replaced electrons as the transmitter of signals. This light transmits signals through optical fibre. Optical fibre is also used in the medical field as laser to do operation , endoscope to examine the internal organs of patients

Photochromic Glass Component: glass, AgCl (or AgBr

Fibreglass Component: Fibreglass and polyster resin Fibre glass is obtained by adding a polyester resin to molten glass. It cannot be compressed easily and is more tensile than the original materials. Fibre glass is light, withstands corrosion, can be cast into different shapes, is impervious to water, not very flammable, not brittle and stronger than even steel. It is used to make racquets, construction panels, electrical appliances, pipes, and water tanks.

Photochromic glass is very sensitive to light. It darkens in the presence of bright light and lightens when the amount of sunlight lessens.

Superconductor

Component: Yttrium oxide (Y2O3), BaCO3, CuO

Superconductors are electrical conductors which have almost zero (0) electrical resistance. Therefore, this conductor minimises the loss of electrical energy through heat. Yttrium barium copper oxide is a type of ceramic superconductor Superconductors are used to make magnets which are light but thousands of times stronger than the normal magnet and electrical generators.