MAE 442 Automotive Engineering: Hybrids

Ewan Pritchard, PE October 5th, 2009

Hybrid Definition
A hybrid is a combination of two things In this case we mean a vehicle powered by two different

power plants
> Electric motor

> Internal combustion engine

Is a Hybrid Vehicle a New Idea?

Hybrids existed in the late 1800s

> Cars could be fuelled by either electric or ethanol > No regenerative energy > The invention of the IGBT between 1960 and 1990 made way for the modern hybrid electric

The Modern Hybrid

Does not idle when stopped Uses a battery pack to store energy

Uses an electric motor to accelerate

Recharges batteries when braking or coasting Allows for a smaller gasoline engine

Increased fuel economy, lower emissions, and lower engine

wear

Why Hybrid: Fuel Economy

As fuel prices rise so does the drive to improve fuel

economy Reduced Dependence on Foreign Fuel Fossil fuels are not sustainable it took millions of years to make them, and about 300 years to consume them.

Why Hybrid: Emissions

Environmental issues

> NOx nitrogen oxides

Works with sunlight to form ozone (lung damage) Forms nitric acid in the air (acid rain) Enters the upper atmosphere and causes a greenhouse effect. (Global warming & climate change)
Enters the upper atmosphere and causes a greenhouse effect. (Global warming & climate change)

> CO2 carbon dioxide

Why Hybrid: Emissions

Environmental issues

> Particulate Matter PM10 10 microns in size, particulates enter the upper respiratory system and cause congestion, smaller

particles cause lung damage.

PM2.5 2.5 microns in size, passes through the alveoli in the lungs and enters the bloodstream to cause pulmonary distress

Why Hybrid: Performance

A tale of two drivelines both 102 kW (137 HP)
Motor/Inv erter Ef f iciency and Continuous Torque Capability Unique Mobility 100kW (peak) PM motor/inv erter

600

Fuel Conv erter Operation 1991 Dodge Carav an 3.0L (102kW) SI Engine - transient data

600

500 0.94
Motor Torque (Nm)

500

400 0.82 0.92 300 0.86 200 0.88 0.9

Torque (Nm)

400

300 0.18 0.26 0.28 0.18 100 0.2 0.22 0.2 0.16 0.14 0.12 5000

200

0.22 0.28 0.24

0.84 100

500

1000

1500

2000 2500 3000 Speed (rpm)

3500

4000

4500

5000

500

1000

1500

2000 2500 3000 Speed (rpm)

3500

4000

4500

Conventional versus Hybrid Design

Conventional Design Characteristics:

> Total Power (Top Speed) > mile time > 0-60
Modern Design Characteristics:

> Pep (acceleration at particular speeds) > Fuel economy on a specific drive cycle

> Ability to meet trace

> Minimized emissions on that cycle

Drive Cycle
Hybrids and Plug-In hybrids add new dimensions to a

historically single dimension problem

Where the Power Goes

A Hybrid Electric System Can Help Minimize These Losses

Engine losses Standby/idle losses Driveline losses Braking losses

Electric accessories

Engine Losses and Idling ~80% of Total Losses

An engine will typically run at many

different efficiencies This engine could run at 44% efficient It will likely average at about 18% By eliminating idling and low torque, the average could be easily running over 30%

Driveline Losses ~5.6% of Total Losses

Hybrid drivelines can be applied in

several ways, one possibility (series

hybrid) can eliminate the driveline completely, eliminating this loss

Conventional

All Electric

Driveline Losses ~5.6% of Total Losses

In a series driveline, only an

electric motor is connected to the

drive wheels
In a parallel system, both the

gasoline and the electric motor are

connected to the drive wheels

Series

Parallel

Braking Losses and Inertia ~5.8% of Total Losses A hybrid vehicle can significantly reduce

braking losses by recapturing the energy electrically in a generator This also significantly reduces brake wear The vehicle is also slowed while traveling down hills by regeneration

Auxiliary and Accessory Loads ~2.2% of Total Losses

Includes fans, pumps, compressors and alternator When these are belt driven, they are subject to the current engine speed, which can

range from 800 RPM up to 6000 RPM At varying speeds these accessories are typically VERY inefficient Each of these is moving towards electrically driven components due to the inherently higher efficiency of electric motors

Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Components

All hybrid and electric vehicles have 4 basic components.

1. Electric Motor 2. Controller/Inverter/Drive 3. Batteries 4. Logic

Improvements in high power electronics, materials and computing capacity have led to significant changes in the

past 20 years.

INDUCTION MOTOR COMPONENTS

Rotating components
> [1] Shaft

> [2] Rotor

> [3] Rotor fins > [4] Fan

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

INDUCTION MOTOR COMPONENTS

Housing components
> [5] End bells / bearing housings > [6] Stator housing > [7] Cooling fins > [8] Junction box > [9] Fan shroud

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

INDUCTION MOTOR COMPONENTS

Fixed components
> [10] Seals

> [11] Stator windings

> [12] Core iron / lamination stack > [13] Bearings

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

Components: Electric Motor - DC

Graphic courtesy of SMMA | www.smma.org

Components: Electric Motor - AC

Graphic courtesy of SMMA | www.smma.org

Components: Electric Motor - Controlled

Graphic courtesy of SMMA | www.smma.org

Controller
Converts Battery DC to a chopped DC power Can chop in amplitude (DC) or frequency (AC) Power is based on low voltage input signal

> 4-20 mA or 0-5V

In other fields this is called a drive or inverter

> Variable Frequency (AC) > Pulse Width Modulation (AC)

> Buck Conversion (Reduce - DC)

> Boost Conversion (Increase - DC)

Batteries
Batteries rule the performance of the vehicle

> They dictate how much power you get (kW) > They dictate how much energy you get (kWh)
A single cell dictates the battery voltage each cell mates two

dissimilar materials
> Lead Acid (2.1 V) > Nickel Cadmium (1.2 V) > Nickel-Metal Hydride (1.2 V) > Lithium-Ion (3.7 V)

Anode (+)
Pb NiOOH NiOOH

Cathode
PbO2 Ni AB5 *

Electrolyte
KOH H2SO4 KOH

LiC6

Li2FePO4F LiPF6

* AB5 is a combination of (A) rare earth mixture and (B) Zirconium or Nickel

Batteries: Packaging
Cylindrical Prismatic

Button
Pouch

Source: www.batteryuniversity.com

Batteries: Packaging
Cylindrical Prismatic

Button
Pouch

Source: www.batteryuniversity.com

Batteries: Packaging
Cylindrical Prismatic

Button
Pouch

Source: www.batteryuniversity.com

Batteries: Packaging
Cylindrical Prismatic

Button
Pouch

Source: www.batteryuniversity.com

Batteries (section 12.1.2)

State of Charge (SOC)
> Measured as a percentage of total battery energy (0-100%) > Typically should not go below 20%

Depth of Discharge (DoD)

> Inverse of SOC

Power (kW) Energy (kWh)

The 18650 cell is proving to be common for hybrids. Similar to a AA cell, the dimensions are 18mm in diameter and 650mm in length.

Batteries: Basic Characteristics

A-h
> Typically used for power batteries > Cells often described in mA-h

C Rate
> A normalized rate of power use to qualify testing > 100% discharge divided by the time in hours > C2 means the discharge rate was 100% in hour > C/2 means the rate was less aggressive over 2 hours

Cycle Life
> Always measured based on DoD
> Ex. 1000 cycles at 80% DoD

Weight/Volume
> Measures in terms of W/kg and W-h/kg

W/l and W-h/l

Cycle Life

Source: Duvall, EPRI Study of cycle life versus depth of discharge

Energy Densities

Source: www.batteryuniversity.com

Ragone Plot

Source: Lawrence Berkeley National Labs

MAE 442 Automotive Engineering: Hybrids II

Ewan Pritchard, PE October 7th, 2009

Agenda
Batteries Engine Coupling Prius Transmission School Bus Program

Finish Viewing ATEC Plug-In Prius Outside

Battery Prices

Lithium Ion
Battery Energy/weight (W-h/kg) Energy/size (W-h/l) Power/weight (W/kg) PbA 40 75 180 Ni-MH 80 300 1000 Li-Ion 160 270 1800

C/D efficiency (%)

Price ($/kW-h)

80%
200

66%
400 30% ~6,500 1.2

99.9%
600 3% ~10,000 3.6/ 3.7

Self-discharge rate (%/month) 10% Cycle durability (80% cycles) Nominal Cell Voltage (V) ~900 2.0

Engine Map: Efficiency

Engine Map: Efficiency

Engine Map: NOx Emissions

Engine Map: PM

Powertrain Integration
Series Hybrid

> Driveline (Volt) > Hub motor (Volvo)

Parallel Hybrid

> Pre-transmission (Honda, Eaton)

> Post-transmission (Enova School Buses) > Transmission Integrated (Ford, Toyota, GM, Allison)

Electric (Easiest)

Series

Through The Road (Parallel)

Parallel

Transmission Integrated
Planetary Gearset (Prius, Ford, GM Two-Mode)

Outer Ring MG2

Planet Carrier - Internal Combustion Engine

Sun MG1

Transmission Integrated

Image from http://privatenrg.com/#Nomograph

Planetary Gearset (Toyota, Ford, GM)

Sun: 30 Teeth MG1 PM AC Sync 6,500 RPM 18 kW. This has been increased to 10,000 RPM Planets: 23 Teeth Combustion engine +5000 RPM 57 kW Outer Ring: 78 Teeth MG2 PM AC Sync.

Flash animation from Eric Hart at: http://eahart.com/flash/PSDAnim.swf

Prius Transmission
Due to the gear ratios, we can say that:

> If Planet Carrier (ICE) is held: MG1(sun)= -78/30*MG2 (Outer Race)= -2.6*MG2 > If Outer Race is held: MG1= 3.6 * ICE
MG1 = 3.6 * ICE - 2.6 * MG2

Prius Transmission
Due to the gear ratios, we can say that:

> If Planet Carrier (ICE) is held: MG1(sun)= -78/30*MG2 (Outer Race)= -2.6*MG2 > If Outer Race is held: MG1= (1 + 2.6 )*ICE
MG1 = 3.6 * ICE - 2.6 * MG2

Excerpt from: http://prius.ecrostech.com/original/Understanding/PowerSplitDevice.htm

Hybrid School Bus Project

Early success for HD-PHEV

IC Corporation (International)

selected based on specific criteria

Plug-in
PHEV-22.5kWh Li-Ion $220k (or $139k premium) First bus delivered March 2007 11 buses delivered to date

PHEV components

Estimated benefits
Plugging-in is optional 90-100% fuel economy improvement for first 45 miles,

40% increase for remainder

90% reduction in particulate matter

60% reduction in NOx

Increased engine, transmission and brake life Electricity cost of 60 / gallon equivalent Option for renewable energy at $1 / gallon

Nationwide plug-in deployment

Delivered Arkansas (1) California (1) Florida (2) North Carolina (2) Pennsylvania (1) South Carolina (2) Texas (1) Washington (1)
Funded / Ordered Iowa (2) New York (2) Pending Texas (1) Virginia (1) Washington (1) Washington DC (1)

Next steps
Four more buses have been ordered Two year monitoring period to record performance
> Emission
> Fuel economy > Maintenance

> General operation

> Driving performance

How closely we monitor them is dependent upon funding

Facilitation of 300 bus purchase

> Anticipated $80,000 premium

Preliminary monitoring results

Florida Buses (Track 1) 1) Florida Buses (Track
9 8

Fuel Economy (MPG)

Fuel Economy (MPG)

604 Control Average: 5.4 MPG 607 Plug-In Hybrid Average: 7.4 MPG Plug-In Hybrid Benefit: 2 MPG increase 30% increase
* Control Route Shifted by 2 w eeks to align route and driver

604 Control 607 Hybrid

0
8/ 5/ 20 07 9/ 4/ 20 07 7 7 7 7 7 07 8/ 15 /2 00 8/ 25 /2 00 9/ 14 /2 00 9/ 24 /2 00 10 /4 /2 00 10 /1 4/ 20 10 /2 4/ 20 07

Date (DD/MM/YYYY)

Plug-in benefits
10.00 9.00

Wake County, N.C., Hybrid School Bus

Wake County Hybrid Bus

8.00

7.00

6.00

MPG

5.00

Plugged In
4.00

3.00

Not Plugged In
2.00

1.00

0.00 7/17/2007

7/27/2007

8/6/2007

8/16/2007

8/26/2007 Date

9/5/2007

9/15/2007

9/25/2007

10/5/2007

Enova data logging

Power versus Speed
100

Power Versus Speed

80

60

40

20

-20

First Gear Second Gear Third Gear Fourth Gear Fifth Gear

Power (kW)

-40

-60

-80

-100 0 10 20 30 Speed (mph) 40 50 60

Incremental cost per unit

$200,000

School districts portion

$160,000

In need of funding

Incremental Cost ($)

$120,000

$80,000

$40,000

$0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

Number of Units Sold

School Bus Modeling

The characteristics are used to virtually build a

bus in ADVISOR NRELs ADvanced VehIcle SimulatOR

ADVISOR uses Matlab and Simulink to model

a vehicle based on a specific route and vehicle information.

The results are Performance, Fuel Economy,

and Emissions.

School Bus Modeling

By defining each component, any vehicle can

be adequately modeled.
There is a LOT to define and wide assumptions

can lead to a lot of error.

We ran many trials to understand the

sensitivity of the variables

School Bus Modeling

By defining each component, any vehicle can

be adequately modeled
There is a LOT to define and wide assumptions

can lead to a lot of error

We ran many trials to understand the

sensitivity of the variables

School Bus Modeling

Each model can be run through a predefined

route
We used the West Virginia Suburban Cycle six

times
The vehicle can also be run through

acceleration and grade trials.

Each model takes about 3 minutes to run.

School Bus Modeling

The results show acceleration rates, fuel usage

and emissions
Many parameters can be analyzed such as

overall ratio
Additional information can be gathered about

energy use
This model appears to be off, we know the fuel

economy should average at about 8.2 miles per gallon

School Bus Modeling

The loss plot shows usages of each

component
From this loss plot we can imaging how

much energy could have been saved.

School Bus Modeling

The Parallel Model 80 kW engine (~107 hp) Lead Acid Batteries 100 kW Electric Motor

School Bus Modeling

11.4 mpg But.. It is depleting the battery pack 9.107 grams per mile NOx Much Faster acceleration times, this

model is likely oversized

School Bus Modeling

Series Model 112 kW engine (150 hp) 116 kW Electric Motor (155 hp) 131 kW generator (175 hp) 1 speed transmission

School Bus Modeling

9 mpg Still depleting the battery pack 1.583 grams per mile NOx Slightly better acceleration Engine is ALWAYS on.

Where can you fit in?

Currently seeking graduate students to perform research

under ATEC
Join Eco-Car Challenge Go work for a major auto manufacturer and join ATEC

Tell others about the work going on at NCSU

Please Call with Questions

Ewan Pritchard, PE Program Manager Advanced Transportation Energy Center (ATEC) North Carolina State University MRC - Suite 339 Campus Box 7237 Raleigh, NC 27695-7237 919.515.2194 (office) 919.819.0098 (cell) egpritch@ncsu.edu www.atec.ncsu.edu