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Electronic Structure of
Atom
From Indivisible to Quantum
Mechanical Model of the Atom
1
Classical Model
Democritus
Dalton
Thomson
Rutherford
2
Democritus
Circa 400 BC
Greek philosopher
Suggested that all matter is
composed of tiny, indivisible
particles, called atoms
3
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. All matter is made of tiny indivisible particles called
atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical. The
atoms of any one element are different from those
of any other element.
3. Atoms of different elements can combine with one
another in simple whole number ratios to form
compounds.
4. Chemical reactions occur when atoms are
separated, joined, or rearranged; however, atoms
of one element are not changed into atoms of
another by a chemical reaction.
4
J.J. Thomson (1897)
Determined the charge to mass
ratio for electrons
Applied electric and magnetic
fields to cathode rays (waves)
“Plum pudding” model of the
atom
5
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
(1910)
6
7
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
(Observations)
8
Rutherford’s Gold Foil
Experiment (Conclusions)
9
Shortfalls of Rutherford’s
Model
Did not explain where the atom’s
negatively charged electrons are
located in the space surrounding its
positively charged nucleus.
We know oppositely charged particles
attract each other
What prevents the negative electrons
from being drawn into the positive
nucleus?
10
Bohr Model (1913)
12
Think about satellites….
13
Electronic Structure of
Atom
Waves-particle duality
Photoelectric effect
Planck’s constant
Bohr model
de Broglie equation
14
Radiant Energy
Radiation ≡ the emission of energy in various forms
A.K.A. Electromagnetic Radiation
Radiant Energy travels in the form of waves that have both
electrical and magnetic impulses
Electromagnetic Radiation ≡ radiation that consists
of wave-like electric and magnetic fields in space,
including light, microwaves, radio signals, and x-
rays
Electromagnetic waves can travel through empty
space, at the speed of light (c=3.00x108m/s) or
about 300million m/s!!!
15
Waves
Waves transfer energy from one place to
another
• Think about the damage done by waves during
strong hurricanes.
• Think about placing a tennis ball in your bath tub, if
you create waves at one it, that energy is
transferred to the ball at the other = bobbing
Electromagnetic waves have the same
characteristics as other waves
16
Wave Characteristics
2
m
10
m
17
Wave Characteristics
t=0 t=5
t=0 t=5
18
Units for Frequency
1 cycle/s
s-1
hertz, Hz
Because all electromagnetic waves travel
at the speed of light, wavelength is
determined by frequency
Low frequency = long wavelengths
High frequency = short wavelengths
19
Waves
Amplitude ≡ maximum height of a wave
20
Waves
Node ≡ points of zero amplitude
21
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
Radio & TV, microwaves, UV,
infrared, visible light = all are
examples of electromagnetic
radiation (and radiant energy)
Electromagnetic spectrum: entire
range of electromagnetic radiation
22
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Frequenc
1024 1020 1018 1016 1014 1012 1010 108 106 y Hz
23
Notes
Higher-frequency electromagnetic waves
have higher energy than lower-frequency
electromagnetic waves
All forms of electromagnetic energy
interact with matter, and the ability of these
different waves to penetrate matter is a
measure of the energy of the waves
24
What is your favorite radio
station?
26
Wavelength of FM
Answer:
c =λ ν
c= speed of light = 3.00x108 m/s
ν = 105.9MHz or 1.059x108Hz
λ = c/ν = 3.00x108 m/s = 2.83m
1.059x1081/s
27
What does the electromagnetic
spectrum have to do with
electrons?
28
Light
States of Electrons
When current is passed through a gas at a
low pressure, the potential energy (energy
due to position) of some of the gas atoms
increases.
Ground State: the lowest energy state of an
atom
Excited State: a state in which the atom has
a higher potential energy than it had in its
ground state
30
Excited State
Absorbance and Emission
Absorbance and Emission
Quantization
Neon Signs
When an excited atom returns to
its ground state it gives off the
energy it gained in the form of
electromagnetic radiation!
The glow of neon signs, is an
example of this process
35
White Light
White light is composed of all of the
colors of the spectrum = ROY G BIV
When white light is passed through a
prism, the light is separated into a
spectrum, of all the colors
What are rainbows?
36
Line-emission Spectrum
When an electric current is
passed through a vacuum tube
containing H2 gas at low pressure,
and emission of a pinkish glow is
observed.
What do you think happens when
that pink glow is passed through
a prism?
37
Hydrogen’s Emission Spectrum
38
Bohr’s Model of Hydrogen
Atom
Hydrogen did not produce a continuous
spectrum
New model was needed:
Electrons can circle the nucleus only in
allowed paths or orbits
When an e- is in one of these orbits, the
atom has a fixed, definite energy
e- and hydrogen atom are in its lowest
energy state when it is in the orbit closest
to the nucleus
39
Bohr Model Continued…
Orbits are separated by empty space,
where e- cannot exist
Energy of e- increases as it moves to
orbits farther and farther from the
nucleus
40
Bohr Model and Hydrogen
Spectrum
While in orbit, e- can neither gain or lose energy
But, e- can gain energy equal to the difference
between higher and lower orbitals, and therefore
move to the higher orbital (Absorption)
When e- falls from higher state to lower state, energy
is emitted (Emission)
Bohr’s Calculations
Based on the wavelengths of hydrogen’s line-
emission spectrum, Bohr calculated the
energies that an e- would have in the allowed
energy levels for the hydrogen atom
41
Photoelectric Effect
An observed phenomenon, early 1900s
When light was shone on a metal, electrons
were emitted from that metal
Light was known to be a form of energy,
capable of knocking loose an electron from a
metal
Therefore, light of any frequency could supply
enough energy to eject an electron.
42
Photoelectric Effect : Situation
Light strikes the surface of a metal
(cathode), and e- are ejected. These
ejected e- move from the cathode to the
anode, and current flows in the cell. A
minimum frequency of light is used. If
the frequency is above the minimum and
the intensity of the light is increased,
more e- are ejected.
43
Photoelectric Effect
cont.
Observed: For a given metal, no
electrons were emitted if the light’s
frequency was below a certain
minimum, no matter how long the
light was shone
Why does the light have to be
of a minimum frequency?
44
Explanation….
Max Planck studied the emission of light
by hot objects
Proposed: objects emit energy in small,
specific amounts = quanta
(Differs from wave theory which would say objects emit
electromagnetic radiation continuously)
45
Planck’s Equation
E radiation = Planck’s constant x
frequency of radiation
E = hν
h = Planck’s constant
= 6.626 x 10-34 J s
•
46
Einstein Expands Planck’s
Theory
Theorized that electromagnetic
radiation had a dual wave-particle
nature!
Behaves like waves and particles
Think of light as particles that each
carry one quantum of energy =
Photons
photons
Photons: a particle of electromagnetic
radiation having zero mass and carrying a
quantum of energy
Ephoton = hν
47
Back to Photoelectric
Effect
Einstein concluded:
Electromagnetic radiation is
absorbed by matter only in whole
numbers of photons
In order for an e- to be ejected, the
e- must be struck by a single
photon with minimum frequency
48
Example of Planck’s Equation
CD players use lasers that emit red light with a λ of
685 nm. Calculate the energy of one photon.
Different metals require different minimum
frequencies to exhibit photoelectric effect
Answer
Ephoton = hν
h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J•s
c =λ ν
c = speed of light = 3.00x108 m/s
ν = (3.00x108 m/s)/(6.85x10-7 m)
ν = 4.37x1014 1/s
Ephoton = (6.626 x 10-34 J•s)(4.37x1014 1/s)
Ephoton = 2.90 x 10-19 J 49
Wave Nature of Electrons
We know electrons behave as particles
In 1925, Louis de Broglie suggested that
electrons might also display wave
properties
de Broglie’s Equation
A free e- of mass (m) moving with a
velocity (v) should have an associated
wavelength: λ = h/mv
Linked particle properties (m and v) with
a wave property (λ )
50
Example of de Broglie’s Equation
λ = h/mv
λ = (6.626 x 10 -34
J•s) =6.06x10-12 m
(9.11x10-31 kg)(1.2x108m/s)
Remember 1J = 1(kg)(m)2/s2
51
Wave-Particle Duality
de Broglie’s experiments
suggested that e- has wave-like
properties.
Thomson’s experiments
suggested that e- has particle-like
properties
measured charge-to-mass ratio
52
Quantum mechanical
model
SchrÖdinger
Heisenberg
Pauli
Hund
53
Where are the e- in the atom?
e- have a dual wave-particle nature
If e- act like waves and particles at the
same time, where are they in the atom?
First consider a theory by German
theoretical physicist, Werner Heisenberg.
54
Heisenberg’s Idea
e- are detected by their interactions with
photons
Photons have about the same energy as e-
Any attempt to locate a specific e- with a
photon knocks the e- off its course
ALWAYS a basic uncertainty in trying to locate
an e-
Scary???
57
Definitions
Probability ≡ likelihood
Orbital ≡ wave function; region in space
where the probability of finding an electron is
high
SchrÖdinger’s Wave Equation states that
orbitals have quantized energies
But there are other characteristics to
describe orbitals besides energy
58
Quantum Numbers
Definition: specify the properties of
atomic orbitals and the properties of
electrons in orbitals
There are four quantum numbers
The first three are results from
SchrÖdinger’s Wave Equation
59
Quantum Numbers (1)
Principal Quantum Number, n
60
Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number, n
Values of n = 1,2,3,… ∞
Positive integers only!
Indicates the main energy level
occupied by the electron
61
Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number, n
Values of n = 1,2,3,… ∞
Describes the energy level, orbital
size
62
Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number, n
Values of n = 1,2,3,… ∞
Describes the energy level, orbital
size
As n increases, orbital size
increases.
63
Principle Quantum
Number
n=6
n=5
n=4
n=3
Energy n=2
n=1
64
Principal Quantum
Number
Principle Quantum
Number
More than one e- can have the same
n value
These e- are said to be in the same e-
shell
The total number of orbitals that exist
in a given shell = n2
66
Quantum Numbers (2)
Angular momentum quantum number,
l
67
Quantum Numbers
Angular momentum quantum
number, l
Values of l = n-1, 0
68
Quantum Numbers
69
Quantum Numbers
Angular momentum quantum
number, l
Values of l = n-1, 0
(subshells)
(except for the 1st main energy level, orbitals of
different shapes are known as sublevels or
subshells)
71
Orbital Shapes
Angular magnetic quantum number, l
72
Orbital
Shapes
Energy Level and Orbitals
n=1, only s orbitals
n=2, s and p orbitals
n=3, s, p, and d orbitals
n=4, s,p,d and f orbitals
Remember: l = n-1
Value of l 0 1 2 3
Type of orbital s p d f
74
Energy Level Transitions
Atomic Orbitals
Atomic Orbitals are designated by the
principal quantum number followed by
letter of their subshell
76
Quantum Numbers (3)
77
Quantum Numbers
78
Quantum Numbers
80
Magnetic Quantum Number,
ml
Quantum Numbers (4)
Electron Spin Quantum Number,ms
82
Quantum Numbers
Electron Spin Quantum Number,ms
Values of ms = +1/2 or –1/2
e- spin in only 1 or 2 directions
A single orbital can hold a maximum
of 2 e-, which must have opposite
spins
83
Orbital Shapes
1) s orbitals(l = 0 )
84
Orbital Shapes
2) p orbitals(l = 1 )
85
Orbital Shapes
3) d orbitals(l = 2 )
86
orientation of the orbital in space, ml
ml = -1 ml = 0 ml = 1
ml = -2 ml = -1 ml = 0 ml = 1 ml = 2
7.6
Spin quantum number
ms
ms = +½ or -½
ms = +½ ms = -½
7.6