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Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience
Learning
Involves change Is relatively permanent Is acquired through experience
Key Concepts
Reflexive (unlearned) behavior Conditioned (learned) behavior Reinforcement
Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response
Key Concepts
Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others. The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.
Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs
Punishment
Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior
Extinction
Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation
Positive
Negative
Increased
Decreased
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Interval Schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals Variable-Interval Schedule Rewards are initiated after a uneven passage of time Fixed-Ratio Schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform response intervals Variable-Ratio Schedule Rewards are initiated after a uneven number of responses
Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement Schedules
Evaluate alternatives
Evaluate alternatives
Choose the one which satisfies the criteria the best Monitor the results
Implement solution
Follow Up
Optimal decision
The maximizing decision, yielding the absolute best result
Satisficing decision
Satisfactory rather than optimal decision
Attribution Theory
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.
Attribution Theory
One of your coworkers avoids you at work. Do you attribute her behavior to internal causes (she is shy or aloof) or to external causes (it is something about you or the situation)? IF the coworker avoids other coworkers (distinctiveness), AND IF other coworkers dont avoid you (consensus), AND IF this coworker always avoids you (consistency), THEN you are likely you attribute her behavior to internal causes
The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others
Thought: When students get an A on an exam, they often say they studied hard. But when they dont do well, how does the self-serving bias come into play?
Self-Serving Bias The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors
Break
Escalation of commitment bias Not treating past investments (time, effort, money) as sunk-costs when deciding to continue an investment
Cognitive Biases
Anchoring bias Emphasizing too much, the first piece of information encountered
Small sample bias Relying too much on information from a small sample of all possible data
Cognitive Biases
Conjunctivity bias Belief that events that occur in conjunction are more likely than the events by themselves Overconfidence bias Believing too much in our own ability to make good decisions
Framing Bias
Imagine that the U.S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. Assume that the exact scientific estimates of the consequences of the programs are as follows:
If Program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved. If Program B is adopted, there is a one-third probability that 600 people will be saved and a two-thirds probability that no people will be saved. If Program A is adopted, 400 people will die. If Program B is adopted, there is a one-third probability that nobody will die and a two-thirds probability that 600 people will die.
Framing Bias
80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% Gain Safe Choice Loss Risky Choice 37% 24% 63% 76%
1. Reciprocity
People are more likely to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided a favor or concession.
Reciprocity
Reciprocity is the causal mechanism behind FAVOR EXCHANGE.
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Immediately One month later
Giver Receiver
3. Scarcity
As a resource becomes more scarce, it becomes more critical and valuable in our minds, even more than it deserves.
4. Social Validation
People are more likely to comply with requests if they are consistent with what similar others are doing.
Informational Social Influence Normative Social Influence Asch Conformity Experiment
People are more likely to be persuaded by someone who possesses more status or expertise, regardless of the strength of their arguments. Some surprising, superficial markers of authority include:
A deep, assertive voice Graying hair Eyeglasses Dress/Clothes (Suit or uniform) British accent Height
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Personality
HOFSTEDE
Power Distance: This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people. People in societies exhibiting a large degree of power distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low power distance, people strive to equalize the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power.
37
Power Distance
High
People do not expect to get all information Difficult to provide honest feedback to leaders Boundaries are easy to create but hard to widen Hard to replace hierarchy when leader is part of the team
Low
People expect and welcome information Comfortable to provide honest feedback to leaders Boundaries can be created in collaboration and easy to widen People welcome leader as part of the team
HOFSTEDE
Indulgence vs Restraint: Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.
39
HOFSTEDE
Pragmatic vs Normative
This dimension describes how people in the past, as well as today, relate to the fact that so much that happens around us cannot be explained. In societies with a normative orientation most people have a strong desire to explain as much as possible. People in such societies have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth; they are normative in their thinking. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future and a focus on achieving quick results.
In societies with a pragmatic orientation, most people dont have a need to explain everything, as they believe that it is impossible to understand fully the complexity of life. The challenge is not to know the truth but to live a virtuous life. In societies with a pragmatic orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions easily to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness and perseverance in achieving results.
40
HOFSTEDE
Uncertainty Avoidance
The uncertainty avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior and are intolerant of unorthodox behavior and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles.
41
HOFSTEDE
Masculinity vs Femininity
The masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented.
42
HOFSTEDE
Individualism vs Collectivism
The high side of this dimension, called individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families. Its opposite, collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society's position on this dimension is reflected in whether peoples self-image is defined in terms of I or we.
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Individualism
High
People want information that relates to individuals People prefer individual-based boundaries People have difficulty working in teams
Low
People want teamrelated information People prefer teambased boundaries People welcome a team-focus
Attributes of Individualismcollectivism
(Triandis, 1995) Independent vs. interdependent selfconstrual
Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. (Markus &
Kitayama, 1991)
Consequences of selfconstrual
Independent self
(Triandis, 1994)
Success is attributed to ability; Interdependent self failure is attributed to external Success is attributed to help causes from others; failure is attributed Self-focused emotions and of to lack of effort long duration Other-focused emotions and of Focus on my needs, rights, short duration capacity
Has many ingroups; but relationships are casual, with little emotional involvement
Debate, confrontation are acceptable Conflict with out-groups is accepted but not desired
Focus on the needs of my ingroup (obligation) Has few ingroups; but relationship to them is close, with much concern for their integrity
Domain Groups
Research Findings Collectivists perform best when working in a group, when given shared responsibility, and when given group-focused training Individualists perform best when working alone, when given individual responsibility, and when given individual training; they resist teams more than collectivists Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between I-C and group behavior
Leadership
For collectivists, effective leadership consists of both direction and participation Leader social support is more important for collectivists than for individualists Individualists respond less favorably to authoritarian leadership than collectivists Individualists rely more on their own experience and on their subordinates experience when making decisions than do
Domain Rewards
Research Findings Individualists prefer individual-based compensation and equity allocations Collectivists prefer group-based compensation and equalitarian allocations, except in out-group situations in which they prefer equity allocations. On the other hand, their preferences appear to be changing over time as businesses become more global Collectivists demonstrate more differences in conflict resolution among ingroups vs. outgroups When dealing with ingroup members, collectivists prefer indirectness, cooperativeness, avoiding, yielding, and compromising; when dealing with outgroup members, collectivists start the negotiation by stating what is non-negotiable Individualists tend to start negotiations by looking for common ground, prefer direct methods, contending, and problem solving Individualists tend to have clear ideas about means and ends and prefer to have control over the process
Conflict
Team Processes
Team process is a term that reflects the different types of activities and interactions that occur within teams and contribute to their ultimate end goals. Team characteristics, like member diversity, task interdependence, team size, and so forth, affect team processes. Team processes, in turn, have a strong impact on team effectiveness.
Team Value
Process gain is getting more from the team than you would expect according to the capabilities of its individual members. Process loss is getting less from the team than you would expect based on the capabilities of its individual members.
+ MINUS
Process Losses
Coordination loss consumes time and energy that could otherwise be devoted to task activity. Motivational loss is the loss in team productivity that occurs when team members do not work as hard as they could.
Small groups
Large groups
(Greenberg, 1996)
Taskwork Processes
Taskwork processes are the activities of team members that relate directly to the accomplishment of team tasks.
When teams engage in creative behavior, their activities are focused on generating novel and useful ideas and solutions. Brainstorming involves a face-to-face meeting of team members in which each offers as many ideas as possible about some focal problem or issue. Nominal group technique is similar to a traditional brainstorming session, but it makes people write down ideas on their own, thereby decreasing social loafing and production blocking.
Teamwork Processes
Teamwork processes refer to the interpersonal activities that facilitate the accomplishment of the teams work but do not directly involve task accomplishment itself. Behaviors that create the setting or context in which taskwork can be carried out. Transition processes, action processes, interpersonal processes Transition processes are teamwork activities that focus on preparation for future work. Mission analysis, strategy formulation, goal specification Action processes are important as the taskwork is being accomplished. Monitoring progress toward goals, coordination
Interpersonal processes are important before, during, or in between periods of taskwork. Motivating and confidence building refers to things team members do or say that affect the Conflict management activities that the team uses degree to whichinvolves members are motivated to work to manage conflicts that arise in the course of its work. hard on the task.
Relationship conflict refers to disagreements among team members in terms of interpersonal relationships or incompatibilities with respect to personal values or preferences. Task conflict refers to disagreements among members about the teams task.
Task Performance
Relationship Conflict
Team States
Team states refer to specific types of feelings and thoughts that coalesce in the minds of team members as a consequence of their experience working together. Cohesion, potency, mental models, transactive memory
Avoid too much cohesion by assessing the teams cohesion, and appointing a devils advocate.
Team members confidence in their own capabilities, their trust in other members capabilities, and feedback about past performance play a role in developing high potency.
Mental models refer to the level of common understanding among team members with regard to important aspects of the team and its task. Transactive memory refers to how specialized knowledge is distributed among members in a manner that results in an effective system of memory for the team.
Teams that engage in effective teamwork processes tend to continue to exist together into the future.
People tend to be satisfied in teams in which there are effective interpersonal interactions.
Advantages
Breadth of information
Diversity of perspectives Social facilitation
Conflict, disagreement
Free riding (social loafing)
Legitimacy of process
Commitment to solution
Danger of conformity
Lack of coordination
Training Teams
Taken together, knowledge, skills, and abilities are referred to as transportable teamwork competences. Trainees can transport what they learn about teamwork from one team context and apply it in another. Examples Conflict Resolution Collaborative Problem Solving Communications
Cross-training involves training members in the duties and responsibilities of their teammates.
Personal clarification happens when members simply receive information regarding the roles of the other team members. Positional modeling involves team members observing how other members perform their roles. Positional rotation gives members actual experience carrying out the responsibilities of their teammates.
T for Teamwork
1. What are the challenges facing the struggling real estate agency? 2. Discuss taskwork and teamwork processes demonstrated by the employees. 3. Discuss team states experienced by the employees.
Chapter 14
Leadership
Leadership is the use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement. How leaders get the power and influence needed to direct others (Chapter 13). How leaders actually use their power and influence in an effective way. Leaders communicate values, make decisions, motivate, manage emotions, direct team efforts, How do we measure effective leadership?
Leadership Effectiveness
Degree to which the leaders actions result in
Genetic 30%
Other 70%
Behavioral Theories
Ohio State in the 1950s identified two independent leadership behavior dimensions: 1. Initiating Structure
Extent to which the leader defines and structures the roles of employees in pursuit of goal attainment. Leads to employee motivation, leader effectiveness, job satisfaction and unit performance.
2. Consideration Behavioral Theories Extent to which the leader creates job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employee ideas, and consideration of employee feelings. Leads to leader effectiveness, employee motivation, and job satisfaction.
Initiating Structure
38
Consideration
40
Leadership Styles
Is there likely to be one best style? What factors might impact the appropriateness of the various styles?
Contingency Theories
Leadership Styles
Leaders can be separated by the style they use when making important decisions These styles vary in how much control is retained by the leader, and how much control is given to the followers
TimeSensitive Model
Time-Sensitive Model
Scientific support:
In one study, following the model resulted in effective decisions 68% of the time. Not following the model resulted in effective decisions 22% of the time.
Day-toDay Behaviors
Something Is Missing
Think about the most effective leaders you can name Do the leader behaviors and styles discussed thus far capture what it was that made these leaders so effective? So whats missing?
Transformational Leadership
A pattern of behaviors that inspires followers to commit to a shared vision that provides meaning to their work and sets the leader up as a role model who helps followers reach their potential
It is most often contrasted with so-called transactional leadership, which is built around exchanges of rewards and punishments, or laissez-faire leadership, which is the absence of action
Transformational Leadership
Break
97
Importance of Leadership
What skills must middle managers develop to be promoted?
82%
78% 62%
Strategic Thinking
Leadership
Communication
Power can be seen as the ability to resist the influence attempts of others.
Types of Power
Organizational Power Legitimate power is derived from a position of authority inside the organization and is sometimes referred to as formal authority. Reward power exists when someone has control over the resources or rewards another person wants. Coercive power exists when a person has control over punishments in an organization.
Types of Power
Personal Power Expert power is derived from a persons expertise, skill, or knowledge on which others depend. Referent power exists when others have a desire to identify and be associated with a person.
Table 13-3
Using Influence
Influence is the use of an actual behavior that causes behavioral or attitudinal changes in others.
Influence can be seen as directional.
Most frequently occurs downward (managers influencing employees) but can also be lateral (peers influencing peers) or upward (employees influencing managers).
How we went about testing these questions and what we found may astound you. Our planned two-week investigation into the psychology of prison life had to be ended prematurely after only six days because of what the situation was doing to the college students who participated. In only a few days, our guards became sadistic and our prisoners became depressed and showed signs of extreme stress.
Philip G. Zimbardo
Self-serving attributions Preference for own group Lack of attention to subordinates and their perspectives Disinhibition Creation of systems, rules, and ideologies that favor the self and the group Conviction that self-serving rules are fair & legitimate
Steve Jobs
He oozes smug superiority, lacing his public comments with ridicule of Apples rivals, which he casts as mediocre, evil andworst of alllacking taste. (Fortune, March 17, 2008)
1. Why do you think so many study participants obeyed the experimenters instructions?
2. Do you think if Milgram would run his experiments in todays age, he would find the same results? Why or why not?
The mindset of the individual participant is less important than the situational features such as authority figure taking responsibility and having the participant increase the voltage gradually.
Powerlessness
Blind Obedience (Milgram Study) Rebellion (externalization)
Believe that the system is unfair Feelings of anger and resentment Group energy is directed against the organizations goals
Overcoming Powerlessness
1. Dont be willing to concede power.
Think of Milgram! Dont be overinfluenced by the power of authority or hierarchy. Fight the temptation to become apathetic.
There are virtually no situations in which you will not have any power.
Overcoming Powerlessness
2. Figure out what you need to get done.
Overcoming Powerlessness
4. Be Proactive.
Ask questions Leverage contacts/build coalitions Question assumptions Document what you are doing. 5. Keep your eye on the ball. Dont waste time/energy on things you cannot control or fix. Keep short term and long term goals in mind. Always know what your alternative is (remember the motivating power of choice).
Organizational Culture
Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is the shared social knowledge within an organization regarding the rules, norms, and values that shape the attitudes and behaviors of its employees.
Culture is social knowledge among members of the organization. Culture tells employees what the rules, norms, and values are within the organization.
Organizational culture shapes and reinforces certain employee attitudes and behaviors by creating a system of control over employees.
Types of Culture
Culture directs employees to the correct behaviors, even when management is not present. (Culture as a control mechanism)
10%
5%
0% -5%
Y = 0.00 + 3.05 X r = .51 (t = 7.4, df. = 160, N = 180)
-10%
-15% -2
-1
Relative Culture Strength (firm score - market average; zero is the market average)
to figure that out. I always viewed culture as one of those things you talked about, like marketing and advertising. The thing I have learnt at IBM is that culture is everything - Lou Gerstner
-They stink? -Yes. No! -Oh, they make you cry. -No!. . .Layers. Onions have layers. Ogres have layers. Onions have layers. You get it? We both have layers. -Oh, you both have layers. Oh. You know, not everybody likes onions. Shrek, 2001
Culture Components
Observable artifacts
are the manifestations of an organizations culture that employees can easily see or talk about. Symbols can be found throughout an organization, from its corporate logo to the images it places on its Web site to the uniforms its employees wear. Physical structures are the organizations buildings and internal office designs.
Language reflects the jargon, slang, and slogans used within the walls of an organization. Stories consist of anecdotes, accounts, legends, and myths that are passed down from cohort to cohort within an organization. Rituals are the daily or weekly planned routines that occur in an organization. Ceremonies are formal events, generally performed in front of an audience of organizational members.
Espoused values are the beliefs, philosophies, and norms that a company explicitly states.
Published documents, verbal statements made to employees by managers.
Basic underlying assumptions are taken-for-granted beliefs and philosophies that are so ingrained that employees simply act on them rather than questioning the validity of their behavior in a given situation.
Table 16-2
Slide 16-134
Founded in 1963 by Mary Kay Ash Q: What are some of the Direct sales marketing artifacts, values and strategy assumptions inherent in Mary Kay's organizational culture?
Values
Assumptions
Values
Assumptions
COSTUMES
SYMBOLS
JARGON/ LANGUAGE
CEREMONIES
Symbols
Objects to reinforce and communicate quickly and economically the values and ideology
Costumes
Reinforce collective organizational identity & the shared faith of all members of the organization
List artifacts, values, and underlying assumptions for your campus What tools do you see present for managing culture at your campus?
Break!!!
Top Management
Selection Socialization
Socialization is the primary process by which employees learn the social knowledge that enables them to understand and adapt to the organizations culture.
Anticipatory stage happens prior to an employee spending even one second on the job. Encounter stage begins the day an employee starts work. Reality shock is a mismatch of information that occurs when an employee finds that aspects of working at a company are not what the employee expected it to be.
Slide 16-146
Understanding and adaptation is the final stage of socialization, during which newcomers come to learn the content areas of socialization and internalize the norms and expected behaviors of the organization.
The more quickly and effectively an employee is socialized, the sooner that employee becomes a productive worker within the organization.
Managing Socialization
Realistic job preview (RJP) is the process of ensuring that a potential employee understands both the positive and negative aspects of the potential job. One of the most inexpensive and effective ways of reducing early turnover among new employees. Occurs during the anticipatory stage of socialization during the recruitment process.
Slide 16-148
Newcomer orientation session is a common form of training during which new hires to learn more about the organization. Effective way to start the socialization process.
Effective transmitters of socialization content. Employees who complete orientation have higher levels of satisfaction, commitment, and performance than those who dont.
Slide 16-149
Figure 16-5
Figure 16-7
Slide 16-153
Course Evaluations!
Ability
Chapter 10
Class Agenda
Ability defined Cognitive ability Emotional intelligence Physical abilities Best practices
Ability
The relatively stable capabilities people have to perform a particular range of different but related activities
In contrast to skills, which are more trainable and improvable
As with personality, about half of the variation in ability levels is due to genetics
Gattaca
Cognitive Ability
Cognitive abilities are capabilities related to the acquisition and application of knowledge in problem solving.
Verbal ability refers to various capabilities associated with understanding and expressing oral and written communication.
Oral comprehension is the ability to understand spoken words and sentences. Written comprehension is the ability to understand written words and sentences. Oral expression refers to the ability to communicate ideas by speaking. Written expression refers to the ability to communicate ideas in writing.
Contrary to popular myth, war heroes rarely earn their status by acting as if they themselves are invincible. a. if they themselves are invincible b. though they are invincible
c. being invincible
d. invincible e. if they were invincible
Number facility is the capability to do simple math operations (adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing).
Mathematical reasoning refers to the ability to choose and apply formulas to solve problems that involve numbers.
If the average cost of producing one widget decreases from $12.50 to $10.75, what is the percent of the decrease? 1. 10 2. 12.5 3. 14 4. 15 5. 16
People should not be held accountable for the behavior of other people.
a. People have control over their own behavior. b. People cannot control the behavior of other people.
Spatial ability
Spatial orientation refers to having a good understanding of where one is relative to other things in the environment. Visualization is the ability to imagine how separate things will look if they were put together in a particular way.
Given the strong relationship between general cognitive ability and job performance, many organizations are using ability tests to hire new employees. Wonderlic Personnel Test is a 12-minute test of general cognitive ability that consists of 50 questions.
Offers recommendations for minimum passing scores for different job families.
The Wonderlic is given to all football players who College participate in the NFL combine (a requirement for being eligible for the draft) students National average
20
24
29
50
Cognitive Ability
For NFL players taking the Wonderlic, the closer you are to the ball, the higher your score
Offensive tackles: 26 Centers: 25 Quarterbacks: 24 Guards: 23 Tight Ends: 22 Safeties: 19 Linebackers: 19 Cornerbacks: 18 Wide receivers: 17 Running backs: 16
Cognitive Ability
Cognitive Ability
Think of the people you know who are exceptionally smart. Are all of them successful? Those who are not successfulwhy arent they? What holds them back?
Emotional Intelligence
Capabilities related to the management and use of emotions when interacting with others
Sometimes labeled EQ or EI Especially vital in jobs that require a lot of emotional labor Comes in four varieties
Self Awareness
Other Awareness
Emotion Use
Emotion Regulation
19 19 19 19
Emotional Intelligence
Self awareness
The ability of an individual to understand the types of emotions he/she is experiencing, the willingness to acknowledge them, and the capability to express them accurately
Whats your score?
Emotional Intelligence
Other awareness
The ability of an individual to recognize and understand the emotions that other individuals are feeling
Whats your score?
Other Awareness
Find a partner, and position your chairs so that you can see your partners face, but only one of you can see the screen. A series of emotions will appear on the screen. The partner that can see the screen should act out that emotion, using facial expressions and gestures. The other partner guesses the emotion.
Excited
Relaxed
Confused
Terrified
Interested
Bored
Emotional Intelligence
Emotion regulation
The ability to quickly recover from emotional experiences and control ones feelings
Whats your score?
Emotional Intelligence
Use of emotions
The ability of an individual to harness emotions and use them to improve their chances of being successful in a given area
Whats your score?
Emotional Intelligence
Sherlock Holmes
How would you describe Holmess cognitive ability? What about his emotional intelligence?
Break!
191
Physical Abilities
Strength is the degree to which the body is capable of exerting force.
Static strength refers to the ability to lift, push, or pull very heavy objects using the hands, arms, legs, shoulder, or back. Explosive strength happens when the person exerts short bursts of energy to move him- or herself or an object. Dynamic strength refers to the ability to exert force for a prolonged period of time without becoming overly fatigued and giving out.
Stamina refers to the ability of a persons lungs and circulatory system to work efficiently while he or she is engaging in prolonged physical activity.
Near and far vision is the ability to see things up close and at a distance or in low light contexts (night vision). Visual color discrimination and depth perception is the ability to perceive colors and judge relative distances between things accurately.
Physical Ability
Psychomotor
Sensory
Analyzing Ronaldo
199
Chapter 11
Class Agenda
Teams defined
Team types Variations within team types Team interdependence
Team composition
Best practices
Team Characteristics
A team consists of two or more people who work interdependently over some time period to accomplish common goals related to some task-oriented purpose.
A special type of group. The interactions among members within teams revolve around a deeper dependence on one another than the interactions within groups. The interactions within teams occur with a specific taskrelated purpose in mind.
Types of Teams
Virtual teams are teams in which the members are geographically dispersed, and interdependent activity occurs through electronic communicationsprimarily email, instant messaging, and Web conferencing
Team Interdependence
Task interdependence refers the degree to which team members interact with and rely on other team members for the information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work for the team
Task Interdependence
Pooled interdependence requires lowest degree of required coordination, members complete their work assignments independently, and then this work is simply piled up to represent the groups output.
Sequential interdependence requires different tasks to be done in a prescribed order, interact to carry out their work, the interaction only occurs between members who perform tasks that are next to each other in the sequence.
Reciprocal interdependence requires specialized members to perform specific tasks. However, instead of a strict sequence of activities, members interact with a subset of other members to complete the teams work.
Comprehensive interdependence requires the highest level of interaction and coordination among members. Each member has a great deal of discretion in terms of what they do and with whom they interact in the course of the collaboration involved in accomplishing the teams work.
Pooled
Sequential
Reciprocal
Comprehensive
Task Interdependence
What kind(s) of interdependence does Coach Carter create for his team? What are some advantages of working interdependently? What are some disadvantages?
Team Interdependence
Outcome interdependence exists when team members share in the rewards that the team earns
Task Interdependence
Goal Interdependence
Outcome Interdependence
14 14 14
Team Composition
Member Roles
Member Ability
Member ability team members provide a wide array of abilities, both physical and cognitive. Disjunctive tasks are tasks with an objectively verifiable best solution, and the member who possesses the highest level of the ability relevant to the task will have the most influence on the effectiveness of the team. Conjunctive tasks are tasks where the teams performance depends on the abilities of the weakest link. Additive tasks are tasks for which the contributions resulting from the abilities of every member add up to determine team performance.
Member Personality
Team Diversity
Degree to which members are different from one another in terms of any attribute that might be used by someone as a basis of categorizing people.
Value in diversity problem-solving approach Similarity-attraction approach Surface-level diversity Deep-level diversity
Team Size
Having a greater number of members is beneficial for management and project teams but not for teams engaged in production tasks. Research concluded that team members tend to be most satisfied with their team when the number of members is between 4 and 5.
Inception: Teams
Inception
What type of team is this? What stage of team development is this?
Task Interdependence
Goal Interdependence
Outcome Interdependence
Team Composition
Outcome Interdependence
Task Interdependence
Team Types
Goal Interdependence
Break
232
Team Processes
Team Processes
Team process is a term that reflects the different types of activities and interactions that occur within teams and contribute to their ultimate end goals. Team characteristics, like member diversity, task interdependence, team size, and so forth, affect team processes. Team processes, in turn, have a strong impact on team effectiveness.
Team Value
Process gain is getting more from the team than you would expect according to the capabilities of its individual members. Process loss is getting less from the team than you would expect based on the capabilities of its individual members.
= MINUS
Process Losses
Coordination loss consumes time and energy that could otherwise be devoted to task activity. Motivational loss is the loss in team productivity that occurs when team members do not work as hard as they could.
Large groups
(Greenberg, 1996)
Taskwork Processes
Taskwork processes are the activities of team members that relate directly to the accomplishment of team tasks.
When teams engage in creative behavior, their activities are focused on generating novel and useful ideas and solutions. Brainstorming involves a face-to-face meeting of team members in which each offers as many ideas as possible about some focal problem or issue. Nominal group technique is similar to a traditional brainstorming session, but it makes people write down ideas on their own, thereby decreasing social loafing and production blocking.
Decision Making
Decision informity reflects whether members possess adequate information about their own task responsibilities.
Staff validity refers to the degree to which members make good recommendations to the leader. Hierarchical sensitivity reflects the degree to which the leader effectively weighs the recommendations of the members.
Teamwork Processes
Transition processes are teamwork activities that focus on preparation for future work.
Teamwork processes refer to the interpersonal activities that facilitate the accomplishment of the teams work but do not directly involve task accomplishment itself. Behaviors that create the setting or context in which taskwork can be carried out. Transition processes, action processes, interpersonal processes
Interpersonal processes are important before, during, or in between periods of taskwork. Motivating and confidence building refers to things team members do or say that affect the Conflictdegree management involves activities that the team uses to which members are motivated to work to manage conflicts arise in the course of its work. hard on thethat task.
Relationship conflict refers to disagreements among team members in terms of interpersonal relationships or incompatibilities with respect to personal values or preferences. Task conflict refers to disagreements among members about the teams task.
Task Performance
Relationship Conflict
Team States
Team states refer to specific types of feelings and thoughts that coalesce in the minds of team members as a consequence of their experience working together. Cohesion, potency, mental models, transactive memory
Avoid too much cohesion by assessing the teams cohesion, and appointing a devils advocate.
Team members confidence in their own capabilities, their trust in other members capabilities, and feedback about past performance play a role in developing high potency.
Mental models refer to the level of common understanding among team members with regard to important aspects of the team and its task. Transactive memory refers to how specialized knowledge is distributed among members in a manner that results in an effective system of memory for the team.
Teams that engage in effective teamwork processes tend to continue to exist together into the future.
People tend to be satisfied in teams in which there are effective interpersonal interactions.
Advantages
Breadth of information Diversity of perspectives Social facilitation Legitimacy of process Commitment to solution
Danger of conformity
Lack of coordination
Training Teams
Taken together, knowledge, skills, and abilities are referred to as transportable teamwork competences. Trainees can transport what they learn about teamwork from one team context and apply it in another. Examples Conflict Resolution Collaborative Problem Solving Communications Goal Setting and Performance Management Planning and Task Coordination
Cross-training involves training members in the duties and responsibilities of their teammates.
Personal clarification happens when members simply receive information regarding the roles of the other team members. Positional modeling involves team members observing how other members perform their roles. Positional rotation gives members actual experience carrying out the responsibilities of their teammates.