Z.

Ghassemlooy
Mobile Communications
Part IV- Propagation Characteristics
Multi-path Propagation - Fading
Professor Z Ghassemlooy

School of Computing, Engineering and
Information Sciences, University of Northumbria
U.K.
http://soe.unn.ac.uk/ocr
Z. Ghassemlooy
Contents
Fading
Doppler Shift
Dispersion
Summary


Z. Ghassemlooy
NEC Block equalisers
The Block Equalizer equalizes gain differences among channels in a long
haul Dense Wavelength Division Multiplex (DWDM) system. When the
DWDM signals are transmitted over a long distance, gain undulation is
accumulated. The Block Equalizer has been developed to obtain flat
characteristics across all wavelengths and to maintain high quality
transmission in long haul DWDM systems
Z. Ghassemlooy
NEC Block equalisers
The Block Equalizer equalizes gain differences among channels in a long
haul Dense Wavelength Division Multiplex (DWDM) system. When the
DWDM signals are transmitted over a long distance, gain undulation is
accumulated. The Block Equalizer has been developed to obtain flat
characteristics across all wavelengths and to maintain high quality
transmission in long haul DWDM systems
Z. Ghassemlooy
The NEC R640SW Submarine
Repeater has been specially
designed for DWDM applications
including 980nm pumped Erbium
Doped Optical Amplifiers
(EDFAs). This technology enables
high power amplification for
optimized repeater spacing, a wide
and flat amplification gain peak to
allow for efficient channel packing
density, and a lower noise figure
which results in more capacity over
longer distances with the highest
reliability. Each standard repeater is
designed to accommodate up to 8
amplifier systems.
Z. Ghassemlooy
The Branching Unit (BU) is laid
underwater to branch out fiber
transmission paths and power
feeding paths to landing stations.
The BU provides better economical
solutions as well as excellent
flexibility in networking with its
multilanding capability. Fiber
Branch BUs and OADMBUs with
remote powerpath switching
capability are available
Note:
The design of the optional
OADMBU employs optical
couplers and bandpass / highpass
/ lowpass optical filters, allowing
the add/drop operation of a set of
wavelengths (subbands
480 channel carrier equipment
Setting up of X.25 based packet
switching network called
'BANKNET' to be jointly owned by
the Reserve Bank and the public
sector banks. It suggested that the
computer system resources of the
four IBM Mainframes (installed at
the four metros for cheque
processing operations) could be
made use of during the day time by
BANKNET for data
communication with additional
equipment
Supplies precisely controlled
constant current (0.5 ~ 1.6 Amp) to
submarine repeaters
Supports broad range of power
feeding voltages (up to 15kV)
Singleend & doubleend feeding
capability
High Reliability Design
Converter protected in N:1 ratio
C/V SENS protected in 2:1
ratio
Equipment duplication for
branch stations
Automatic protection switching
Minimum Footprint Design
NEC 40G/100G submarine rptr system
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fading
Is due to multipath propagation.
With respect to a stationary base station, multipath
propagation creates a stochastic standing wave pattern,
through which the mobile station moves.
Caused by shadowing:
when the propagation environment is changing
significantly, but this fading is typically much slower than
the multipath fading.
Modem design is affected mainly by the faster
multipath fading, which can be normally assumed to
be locally wide-sense stationary (WSS).
Z. Ghassemlooy
Multipath Propagation - Fading

Antenna
a
b
y = a + b
a & b are in phase
a & b are out of phase by t
Complete fading when
2td/ = nt, d is the path difference
Diffracted
wave
Reflected
wave
No direct path
a
b

Antenna
b
y = 0
a
Z. Ghassemlooy
Multipath Propagation - contd.
For a stationary mobile unit with no direct path, the
received signal can be expressed as a sum of delayed
components or in terms of phasor notation:

=
| + t =
N
i
i c i r
f a t S
1
) 2 ( cos ) (
A single pulse
Pulse train
Where: a
i
is the amplitude of the scattered signal,
p(t) is the transmitted signal (pulse) shape,
t
i
is the time taken by the pulse to reach the receiver,
N is the number of different paths
f
c
is the carrier frequency
( ) ( )

=
t =
N
i
i i r
t P a t S
1
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fading - Types
Slow (Long) Term
0
5
10 15 20 25 Distance ()
S
i
g
n
a
l

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

1
u
V

(
d
b
)

0
10
20
30
Slow fading
Fast fading
Exact representation of fading characteristics is not possible,
because of infinite number of situation.
Fast (Short) Term (Also known as Rayleigh fading)
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fading - Slow (Long) Term
Slower variation in mean signal strength (distance 1-
2 km)
Produced by movement over much longer distances
Caused by:
- Terrain configuration (hill, flat area etc.):
Results in local mean (long term fading) attenuation
and fluctuation.
- The built environment (rural and urban areas etc.),
between base station and the mobile unit:
Results in local mean attenuation
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fading - Slow (Long) Term
C. D. Charalambous et al
Transmitter
t
n,1

Receiver
t
k,1

t
n,3

t
n,2

t
k,2

t
k,3

t
k,4

one
subpath
path k
path n
S
r
(t)
( ) ( )

=
t =
N
i
i i r
t P a t S
1
0
path attenuation factor
for the ith path
Number of path
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fading- Fast (Short) Term
Describes the constant amplitude fluctuations in the received
signal as the mobile moves.
Caused by
- multipath reflection of transmitted signal by local scatters
(houses, building etc.)
- random fluctuations in the received power
Observed over distances = /2
Signal variation up to 30 dB.
Is a frequency selective phenomenon.
Can be described using
- Rayleigh statistics, (no line of sight).
- Rician statistics, (line of sight).
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fading- Fast (Short) Term - contd.

=
| + t =
N
i
i c i r
f a t S
1
) 2 ( cos ) (
A received signal amplitude is given as the sum of delayed
components. In terms of phasor notation it is given as:
Or

= =
| t | t =
N
i
i i c
N
i
i i c r
a t f a t f t S
1 1
) sin( ) 2 sin( ) ( cos ) 2 cos( ) (
In-phase Quadrature
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fading- Fast (Short) Term - contd.
The phase |
i
can be assumed to be uniformly distributed in
the range (0, 2t), provided the locations of buildings etc. are
completely random.

For a large N, the amplitude of the received signal is:
) 2 sin( ) 2 cos( ) ( t f Y t f X t S
c c r
t t =
where

= =
= =
N
i
i i
N
i
i i
a Y a X
1 1
) sin( ), ( cos | |
X and Y are independent, identically distributed Gaussian random
variables.
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fading- Fast (Short) Term - contd.
Rayleigh
Exponential
A or power P
Probability
density
function
The envelope of the received signal is:
5 0 2 2 .
) ( Y X A + =
Which will be Rayleigh distributed:
Assuming all components received
have approximately the same power
and that all are resulting from scattering.
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
2
2
exp
o o
r r
r p
Where 0< r < , o
2
is
variance of A (the total received
power in the multipath signal).

Z. Ghassemlooy
Ricean Fading
If there is one direct component in addition to scattered
components, the envelope received multipath is Ricean,
where the impulse response has a non zero mean.
Ricean distribution = Rayleigh signal + direct line of sight
signal. The distribution is:



o
2
is the power of the line of sight signal and I
0
is a Bessel function of
the first kind
( )
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
0
2
2 2
2
2
exp
o o o
rs
I
s r r
r p
Fading- Fast (Short) Term - contd.
The probability that the realization of the random
variable has a value smaller than x is defined by
the cumulative distribution function:

Applying it to the Rayleigh distribution


For small r

Z. Ghassemlooy
}
= du u pdf r ) ( ) ( cdf
) 2 / ( exp 1 ) ( cdf
2 2
o = r r
2 2
2 / ~ ) ( cdf o r r
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fast Fading Cases 1: Stationary Mobile
5
4
2
1
3
6
t
4

t
5

t
2

t
1

t
3

t
6

v
v
Stationary
t
F
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

Z. Ghassemlooy
Fast Fading Cases 1
The number of fading depends on:
Traffic flow
Distance between the mobile and moving cars
The received signal at the MU is:

( ) ( )

=
t =
N
i
i i r
t P a t S
1
0
i i
t A + t = t
Z. Ghassemlooy

=
=
N
i
i
N
1
1
t t
i
t A
is additional relative delay (positive or negative) where
and
( )
( )
o c
j t f j
r
e t x t S
| + t t
t =
2
) (
( )
)
`

=

=
t A t
N
i
f j
i o
i c
e a a t x
1
2
envelope
Thus
Fast Fading Cases 1
26
t
1
(t
1
) t
2
(t
2
)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t j j t x t S
c c
e | = e x p e x p
( ) ( ) ( ) | |

=
t e =
N
i
i c i c
t j t a a t x
1
exp
Fast Fading Cases 2
T
2
= d
2
/c
T
1
= d
1
/c
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fast Fading Cases 3: Non-stationary
Mobile
The received signal at the mobile is:
) cos 2 (
) (
u | | + t
=
x f j
o r
o c
e a t s
Amplitude
x = Vt
Wave number =2t/
Transmitting frequency
V
t F
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

Signal level No scattered signals
u
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fast Fading Cases 3: Doppler Frequency
t
V
f j
o r
c
e a t s
) cos ( 2
) (
u

t
=
A moving object causes the frequency of a received wave to
change
Substituting for | and x, the expression for the received signal is
The Doppler
frequency
u = u

= cos cos
m D
f
V
f
The received
signal frequency
u = cos
m c r
f f f
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fast Fading Cases 3: Doppler Frequency
When u = 0
o
(mobile moving away from the transmitter)
m c r
f f f =
When u = 90
o
(I.e. mobile circling around)
c r
f f =
When u = 180
o
(mobile moving towards the transmitter)
m c r
f f f + =
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fast Fading Cases 4: Moving MU +
Stationary Scatterer
x(t)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

Standing Wave Pattern
V
s
o
(t)
s
o
(t)
t = 0 t = round trip time
MU
Z. Ghassemlooy
( ) u | | + t
=
c o s 2
) (
V t t f j
o r
o c
e a t s
( ) ( ) t t | + | + t | | + t
=
c o c o c
f V t t f j
o
V t t f j
o r
e a e a t s
2 2 2
) (
and for q = 0
Incident signal Reflected signal
( ) t t | + t
|
.
|

\
|
t t
| =
c o c
f t f j
c
o r
e
f
Vt a j t s
2
2
2
sin 2 ) (
t t + t = |
c
f n V t
Fading with zero amplitude occurs when
Fast Fading Cases 4
Received signal at the MU:
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fast Fading Cases 5: Moving MU and
Scatterers
The resultant received signal is the sum of all the scattered
waves from different angles q
i
depending upon the momentary
attitude of the various scatterers.
( )

=
| + u | | + t
=
N
i
Vt t f j
i o r
i i o c
e a a t s
1
cos 2
) (
Z. Ghassemlooy
Channel Fading Effects
Transmitting a short pulse over a
(i) frequency-selective (time-spread) fading channel:



(ii) time-selective (Doppler-spread) fading channel:

t t
T
p

T
p
+ dt

Transmitted
Received
t t
T
p
T
p

Transmitted
Received
Z. Ghassemlooy
Effects of Doppler shifts
Bandwidth of the signal could increase or decrease leading to
poor and/or missed reception.
The effect in time is coherence time variation and signal
distortion
Coherence time: Time duration over which channel impulse response is
invariant, and in which two signals have strong potential for amplitude
correlation
Coherence time is expressed by:



where f
D-max
is the maximum Doppler shift, which occurs when u = 0 degrees
To avoid distortion due to motion in the channel, the symbol
rate must be greater than the inverse of coherence time.
2
16
9
D-max
c
f
T
t
=
Z. Ghassemlooy
Coherence Distance
Coherence distance is the minimum distance
between points in space for which the signals are
mostly uncorrelated.
This distance is usually grater than 0.5
wavelengths, depending on antenna beamwidth
and angle of arrival distribution.
At the BTS, it is common practice to use spacing
of about 10 and 20 wavelengths for low-medium
and high antenna heights, respectively (120
o

sector antennas).

Z. Ghassemlooy
Coherence Bandwidth (Bc)
Effect of frequency selective fading on the received signal spectrum
Signal bandwidth B
s
Freq.
Power
Describes frequency selective
phenomenon of fast fading
Coherence
Bandwidth B
c
Range of frequency over which channel is flat
It is the bandwidth over which two frequencies have a
strong potential for amplitude correlation
Z. Ghassemlooy
Estimation of Coherence Bandwidth
Coherence bandwidth is estimated using the value of delay
spread of the channel, s
t

For correlation > 0.9
For correlation > 0.5

Typical values of delay
spreads for various types
of terrain:
t
c
B
t
2 . 0
~
t
c
B
t
02 . 0
~
Delay spread figures
at 900 MHz
Delay in
microseconds
Urban 1.3
Urban, worst-case 10 - 25
Suburban, typical 0.2 - 0.31
Suburban, extreme 1.96 - 2.11
Indoor, maximum 0.27
Delay Spread at 1900 MHz
Buildings, average 0.07 - 0.094
Buildings, worst -
case
1.47
Z. Ghassemlooy
Channel Classification
Based on Time-Spreading
Flat Fading
1. B
S
< B
C
T
m
< T
s
2. Rayleigh, Ricean distrib.
3. Spectral chara. of transmitted
signal preserved
Frequency Selective
1. B
S
> B
C
T
m
> T
s
2. Intersymbol Interference
3. Spectral chara. of transmitted
signal not preserved
4. Multipath components resolved
Signal
Channel
freq.
B
S
B
C
freq.
B
C
B
S
Channel
Signal
C. D. Charalambous et al
Z. Ghassemlooy
Fading in Digital Mobile Communications
If B
s
>> B
c
, then a notch appears in the spectrum. Thus
resulting in inter-symbol interference (ISI).

- To overcome this, an adaptive equaliser (AE) with
inverse response may be used at the receiver.
Training sequences are transmitted to update AE.
If B
s
<< B
c
, then flat fading occurs, resulting in a
burst of error.
- Error correction coding is used to overcome this
problem.
Z. Ghassemlooy
Multipath Delay Spread
First-arrival delay (
A
)
Mean excess delay

}
= t t t t t d P
A e
) ( ) (
Z. Ghassemlooy
Multipath Delay Spread
The standard deviation of the distribution of multipath signal
amplitudes is called delay spread. For directive antenna is
characterized by the rms delay spread of the entire delay
profile, which is defined as:




where
t
avg
=
j
P
j
t
j
,
t
j
is the delay of the j th delay component of the profile
P
j
= (power in the j th delay component) / (total power in all components


Delay spread varies with the terrain with typical values for rural, urban and
suburban areas:

=
j
avg j j rms
P
2 2 2
) (t t t
( )
rural s

2 . 0
~
( )
urban s

0 . 3
~ ( )
suburban s

5 . 0
~
Z. Ghassemlooy
Multipath Delay Spread - Dispersion
The delay spread limits the maximum data rate:
No new impulses should arrive at the receiver before the last
replica of the pervious impulse has perished.
Otherwise symbol spreads (dispersion) into its adjacent slot, thus
resulting in Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)




The signal arrived at the receiver directly and phase shifted
Distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
Transmitted
symbols
Received
symbols
Z. Ghassemlooy
Mitigation Techniques for the Multipath
Fading Channel
Space diversity
Signals at the same frequency using two or three antennas located
several wavelengths a part.
Antennas are connected to two or three radio receivers.
The receiver will the strongest signal is elected
Disadvantage: Uses two or more antennas, therefore the
need for a large site.
Frequency diversity
Signals at different frequencies received by the same antenna
very rarely fade simultaneously. Thus the use of several carrier
frequencies or the use of a wideband signal to combat fading.
A single aerial connected to a number receiver, each tuned to a
different frequency, whose outputs are connected in parallel.
The receiver with the strongest instantaneous signal will provide
the output.
Disadvantage: Uses two or more frequencies to transmit
the same signal.
Z. Ghassemlooy
Mitigation Techniques for the Multipath
Fading Channel
Time diversity Spread out the effects of errors
through interleaving and coding
Multipath diversity
Consider the tapped delay line model of a channel
shown previously
If multipaths can be put together coherently at the
receiver, diversity improvement results
This is what the RAKE receiver does (see next
viewgraph)
Z. Ghassemlooy
RAKE Multipath Signal Processing
R.E. Ziemer 2002
Z. Ghassemlooy
System Design and Performance
Prediction
Base station placement dependent on
Propagation environment
Anticipated geographic distribution of users
Economic considerations (minimize number of base stations)
Political and public opinion considerations
Traffic types (3G)
Performance figure of merit
Spectrum efficiency for voice:
v
voice circuits/MHz/base station
Spectrum efficiency for information:
i
bps/MHz/base station
Dropped call rate fraction of calls ended prematurely
Z. Ghassemlooy
Summary
If there is a relative motion between transmitter and receiver
(mobile) the result is Doppler shift
If maximum Doppler shift is less than the data rate, there
is slow fading channel.
If maximum Doppler shift is larger than the data rate, there
is fast fading channel.
The random fluctuations in the received power are due to
fading.
Z. Ghassemlooy
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Tata Communications Limited ; (formerly VSNL)
[3]
is an Indian
global telecommunications company located in Mumbai. It owns a
submarine cable network,
[4]
a Tier-1 IP network, and also rents data
center and colocation space.
[5]
It operates India's largest data center
in Pune.
[6]
Tata Communications acquired Teleglobe, a company based
in Canada, and DishnetDSL, an Indian company, and is the largest
shareholder in South African operator Neotel.
[7]
Tata Communications
currently has a cable network of more than 235,000 kilometres
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Submarine Network Solutions
In the submarine cable industry, Fujitsu is one of the most experienced
players in the world. In 1969, we developed the very first Japanese
coaxial submarine cable system, and since then, Fujitsu has installed
more than 70 submarine cable systems around the globe. Fujitsu provides
planning, design, installation, commissioning, and project management
services to complete full-turn-key projects of any size, on time and to the
full satisfaction of our customers.
Fujitsu is also a leading supplier for systems upgrade projects with
highly reliable technologies and excellent engineering performance. With
Fujitsu submarine systems, you gain the high quality Fujitsu network
capabilities without boundaries. Fujitsu supplies a full complement of
network element for
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India's oldest stock exchange, it's 30-share sensitive index (Sensex) of
the most-traded securities is indicative of the health of the country's
securities markets, and is the Indian equivalent of the Dow Jones index.
CMC took over the task of developing the software for computerised
securities trading knowing full well that it would be an extremely
complicated job. No software company in India had ever tried
developing software for automated trading.
The BOLT system became operational in 1995. On March 14, 1995, 818
scrips were transferred to the screen-based trading system. It is one of the
few stock trading system in the world that handles hybrid / mixed modes
of trading; both order-driven and quote-driven. It supports the normal
segment, the auction segment, the odd-lot segment and continuous net
settlement. There are now more than 6000 BSE trading terminals spread
across the country
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NEC Block equalisers