Maxwell Equations Solution

EM Solvers Theory Basics
Basic theory review

Copyright 2012 Enrico Di Lorenzo, www.FastFieldSolvers.com, All Rights Reserved
The goal
Derive, from Maxwell field equations,
a circuital relationship bounding voltages
and currents
Explain the partial inductance concept
Give to the single terms of the circuit equation
the meaning of capacitance, inductance
and resistance
Summarize the high frequency effects
Maxwell equations
Differential form of Maxwell equations:

= V D
0 = V B
t
B
E
c
c
= V
t
D
J H
c
c
+ = V
The vector potential
Since
then we can write
where is a magnetic vector potential
0 = V B
A B V =
A

t
B
E
c
c
= V
becomes
0 ) ( =
c
c
+ V
t
A
E
By math, the divergence of the curl of a
vector is always zero: 0 = V V A
The scalar potential
implies that there
0 ) ( =
c
c
+ V
t
A
E

exists a scalar function such that
| V =
c
c
+
t
A
E
We can rewrite it as | V
c
c
=
t
A
E
The electric field (1)
| V
c
c
=
t
A
E
In
Note that is not uniquely defined; but
provided we are consistent with a gauge
choice, it does not matter here
A
the electric field
is expressed in terms of a scalar potential
and of a vector potential
Assume now that Ohms law is valid inside
the conductors:
tot
E J o =
Lets split in , induced by the charges
and currents in the system, and , applied
by an external generator
tot
E E
0
E
0
E E E
tot
+ =
| V
c
c
=
t
A
E
Remembering
The applied field is therefore split into
an ohmic term and terms due to the charges
and currents in the systems
and
tot
E J o =
0
E E E
tot
+ = can be rewritten as:
,
t
A J
E
c
c
+ V + = |
o
0
0
E
The circuit equation
Consider a conductor mesh. For any point
To obtain a circuit equation, lets integrate
this equation on the path:
is valid
t
A J
E
c
c
+ V + = |
o
0
along the path,
} } } }
V +
c
c
+ =
c c c c
dl dl
t
A
dl
J
dl E |
o
0
Kirkhoffs second law
If is defined as voltage applied
has the form of the Kirkhoffs second law
} } } }
V +
c
c
+ =
c c c c
dl dl
t
A
dl
J
dl E |
o
0
}

c
dl E
0
} } }
V +
c
c
+
c c c
dl dl
t
A
dl
J
|
o
as voltage drops along the circuit, then
to the circuit and
Voltage drop terms
For low frequencies, i.e. small circuit
dimensions vs. wavelength (quasistatic
assumption), we can name the terms as:
applied
= V
}
c
dl |
=
c
c
}
c
dl
t
A
=
}
dl
J
c
o
=
}
c
dl E
0
voltage
internal
impedance
voltage drop
inductive
voltage drop
capacitive
voltage drop
Capacitance (1)
Reacting to the applied field, free charges
distribute along the circuit
}
=
V
r
dV
tc
|
4
Since all charges are regarded as field
sources, we can account for the conductor
through its effect on the field distribution
and assume that the charges are in free space
So the generated field is:
Capacitance (2)
Assume to have a capacitor along the
chosen conductive path, as in the figure:
So along the path there is a discontinuity
(i.e. on the capacitor plates). Therefore:
} } }
V V = V
2
1
dl dl dl
c
| | |
Capacitance (3)
Therefore,
Lets work on the terms:
} } }
V V = V
2
1
dl dl dl
c
| | |
2
2
1
1
2
1
| |
|
| =
c
c
= V
} }
dl
l
dl
0 = V
}
dl |
(always zero)
2 1
| | | = V
}
c
dl
is proportional to Q (remember )
so we can write

where C is constant
Capacitance (4)
By hypotesis, all charge Q is lumped on the
discontinuity
}
=
V
r
dV
tc
|
4
C
Q
=
2 1
| |
Capacitance (5)
Considering the current continuity equation
, the charge on the discontinuity
is related with the current flowing towards it.
}
= Idt Q
C
Q
=
2 1
| |
2 1
| | | = V
}
c
dl
C
Q
dl
c
= V
}
|
is the usual capacitive term
of the circuit theory.
C
Q
dl
c
= V
}
|
For example, assuming , it follows:
Inductance (1)
The vector potential depends in general
on the current density .
0 = V A
}
=
V
r
dV J
A
t
4
A
J
The current density can be expressed as the
total current I multiplied by a suitable
coordinate-dependent vector function
along the conductor section.
Because of the quasistatic assumption,
I is constant along the circuit
Inductance (2)
Inductance (3)
We can therefore define a coefficient, L,
depending on the circuit geometry but not
on the total current:
I
dl A
L
c
}

=
Inductance (4)
Using L, the inductive voltage drop becomes:
dt
dI
L LI
dt
d
dl A
dt
d
dl
t
A
c c
= = =
c
c
} }
) (
This term has the usual form of inductive
voltage drop in the circuit theory
Inductance (5)
As an alternative, consider a closed circuit,
and using Stokes theorem and the fact that
we can define as:
+ = =
} }
S
ds B dl A
So is the magnetic flux linked to the circuit;
this gives the usual inductance definition:
A B V =
I I
ds B
I
dl A
L
S
+
=
=
}
}
Therefore, the term in depends
strictly on the mesh integration path.
Internal impedance (1)
In general, the current is not homogeneously
distributed on a conductor section.
J
dl
J
c
}
o
If we choose a path on the conductor
surface, gives the electrical field
on the surface, .
o / J
S
E
we can then write:
If we define the internal impedance per
unit length as:
I
E
Z
S
i
=
i
Z
IZ dl Z I dl
I
E
I dl
J
C
i
C
S
c
= = =
} } }
o
In sinusoidal steady state, has a real and
an imaginary part, since the surface field is
not in phase with the total current in the
conductor, because of the magnetic flux
distribution inside the conductor.
i
Z
The real part of gives the resistance of the
conductor at a certain frequency.
i
Z
The imaginary part of gives the internal
reactance, that is the part of the reactance
generated by the magnetic flux inside
the conductor
i
Z
The choice of the integration path was
arbitrary; but in this way, the magnetic
flux in can be
considered as the flux linked with the internal
of the mesh but not with the conductor.
} }
= = +
S
ds B dl A
Other choices could be made but with this
one there is a distinct advantage
With this integration path choice:
L = / I can be called external inductance,
since is bounded to the magnetic flux
external to the conductor
The inductive term of the internal
impedance (the imaginary part) is linked
to the flux inside the conductor and
can be called internal inductance.
Partial inductance (1)
Inductance is a property of a closed
conductive path.
However, it is possible to define a partial
inductance, applicable to open paths
Suppose to divide a path into small,
rectilinear segments; the idea is to distribute
the total inductance to these segments
in a unique way
Lets work on a simple example. Consider the
rectangular path in figure:
Neglect the fact that the path is not closed;
assume also a constant current density
Remembering the definition of magnetic flux,
we can define
1
,
2
,

3
and
4
as integrals along the 4 segments:
This subdivision suggests that
can written as the sum of four terms
} }
= = + dl A ds B
S

}
= =
+ = = +
4
1
4
1 i
i
i
seg
i
dl A
I dl A L
c
/
}
=
So, L=L
1
+ L
2
+ L
3
+ L
4
where
Assuming that the segments are
infinitesimally thin, we can now define the
partial inductances.
I dl A L
i
seg
i
/
}
=
The magnetic potential vector can be
split in its turn into the sum of the potential
vectors generated by the currents in the
four sides
A
The partial inductances L
ij
are:
where is the vector potential along the
i segment caused by the current I
j
along
the j segment
ij
A
j
seg
i ij
ij
I
dl A
L
i
}

=
The total inductance of the closed path is
therefore:
= =
=
4
1
4
1 i j
ij
L L
The definition can be extended to
non-infinitesimally thin segments with
non-uniform current densities
Lets consider an equivalent formula:
where S
i
is the area enclosed between
segment i, the infinite and two lines
passing along the endpoints and
perpendicular to segment j
j
S
i ij
ij
I
ds B
L
i
}

=
For instance, if i = j, the area enclosed
in the path to be used in the integral is
shown in the figure:
Lets derive the alternative equation.
Using Stokes theorem on the path c
i

enclosing S
i
, we have:
j
c
i ij
j
S
i ij
ij
I
dl A
I
ds B
L
i i
} }

=
=
has the following properties:
A
is parallel to the source current
increasing the distance from the source,
tends to zero
By construction, lateral sides of S
i
are
perpendicular to source segment j
By construction, the last side of S
i
lies at
infinite distance
Therefore, the only contribution to L
ij
along
c
i
is given by

the i segment, i.e.:
j
seg
i ij
j
c
i ij
j
S
i ij
ij
I
dl A
I
dl A
I
ds B
L
i i i
} } }

=
=
The equivalence has thus been proved.
High frequency effects (1)
In this context, high freqency means the
maximum frequency at which we can still
use the quasistatic assumption
(i.e. geometrical dimensions << wavelength)
Three main effects:
Proximity effect
Edge effect
Skin effect
At low frequencies, the current is uniform
on the conductor section. Increasing the
frequency, the distribution changes and the
three effects take place.
The effects are not independent, but for
sake of simplicity are treated on their own
We will provide an intuitive explanation only
The edge effect is the tendency of the current
to crowd on the conductor edges.
The skin effect is the tendency of the current
to crowd on a thin layer (skin) on the
conductor surface
The proximity effect, especially visible on
ground planes, is the tendency of the current
to crowd under signal carrying conductors.
The skin thickness is usually taken as ,
the depth at which the field is only 1/e of
the surface field, in case of a plane conductor
The skin thickness formula is:
o t
o
f
0
1
=
At low frequencies, L and R are almost
constants. However, increasing the frequency,
the current crowds on the surface:
The proximity effect can be thought also
as the skin effect of a group of conductors
The resistance increases
The external inductance slightly decreases
The internal inductance decreases
At frequencies even higher, the R increases
with the square root of the frequency and
the L tends to a constant, which can be
expressed as:
'
0
0 0
'
C
L
c
=
where C
0
is the capacitance per unit length
when the dielectrics are subsituted with void
References (1)
[1] S. Ramo, J. R. Whinnery, T. Van Duzer. Fields and Waves in Communication
Electronics. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1993.
[2] A. E. Ruehli. Equivalent Circuit Models for Three-dimensional Multiconductor
Systems. IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 22, no. 3,
March 1974.
[3] M. Kamon. Efficient Techniques for Inductance Extraction of Complex 3-D
Geometries. Masters Thesis, Depart. of Electrical Engineering and Computer
Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1994.
[4] A. E. Ruehli. Inductance Calculations in a Complex Integrated Circuit
Environment. IBM J. Res. Develop., vol. 16, pp. 470-481, September 1972.
[5] E. Hallen. Electromagnetic Theory. Chapman & Hall, London, 1962.
[6] B. Young. Return Path Inductance in Measurements of Package Inductance
Matrixes. IEEE Trans. on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing
Technology, part B, vol. 20, no. 1, February 1997.
References (2)
[7] A. R. Djordjevic, T. K. Sarkar. Closed-Form Formulas for Frequency-Dependent
Resistance and Inductance per Unit Length of Microstrip and Strip
Transmission Lines. IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
vol. 42, no. 2, February 1994.
[8] S. S. Attwood. Electric and Magnetic Fields. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1949.

Maxwell Equations Solution

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Basic theory review

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