I. II. III.

IV

INTRODUCTION The 7 Q.C. Tools Definition of objective / problem 7 Q.C. Tool Proper

9:00 9:30 9:30 9:50 9:50 10:00

PARETO DIAGRAM
Working Break HISTOGRAM Exercises LUNCH BREAK CHECK SHEET CAUSE-AND-EFFECT SCATTER DIAGRAM Working Break Exercises CONTROL CHART STRATIFICATION Exercises V CONCLUSION AND CLOSING

10:00 10:50
10:30 10:50-11:40 11:40 12:00 12:00 1:00 1:00 1:20 1:20 2:10 2:10 3:00 3:00 3:00 3:20 3:20 4:10 4:10 4:40 4:40 5:00 5:00 5:10

Introduction on how to use the TRAINING MANUAL: The main custom for this training manual is the user must know and have the ability on how to read and write. The reader must be knowledgeable with at list the use of arithmetic and basic trigonometric functions. For more relation and connection with the training manual / course. This training manual gives us a step by step activity in order to acquire every single skill and technique for each 7 Q.C. Tool / chapter This training manual presents technical terms with its related work and meaning to enrich the information of the reader. Each undefined word or a technical (term) word found by a reader may be traced on a footnote for the reader to have more understanding of the said word. These document contains information confidential to ENGTEK. This manuscript should not be re-printed or reproduced unless otherwise authorized by ENGTEK PRECISION PHILIPPINES, INC.

Prepared and presented by: MARK ANTHONY SIAGA

INTRODUCTION . 5 HOW TO USE THIS TRAINING MANUAL 7 Q.C. PARETO DIAGRAM What is a Pareto Diagram . Features of the Pareto Diagram How to construct . HISTOGRAM What is Histogram . Features of Histogram . How to make Histogram . Types of Histogram . CHECK SHEET What is a Check Sheet . How to develop a Check Sheet . CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM What is Cause-and-Effect diagram How to make a Cause-and-Effect diagram What is a Characteristic Diagram. . SCATTER DIAGRAM What is a Scatter Diagram . How to make a Scatter Diagram Preparing a Scatter Diagram . Viewing and using . Interpretation . . CONTROL CHART What is a Control Chart. . Types of Control Chart . . List of Formulas . . How to make a Control Chart . How to read a Control Chart . STRATIFICATION What is Stratification Stratifying of Histogram Stratifying of Control Chart FACTS & CONCLUSION . . . . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS
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7 7 7 12 12 13 18 21 21 23 24 28

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32 34 34 35 37 38 39 40 41 45

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47 47 48 50

INTRODUCTION
Quality Control (QC) is a system which uses the most economical means of produce a quality product or service that meets the customers requirements. This means that, QC is the total of a companys activities as a whole, which is to develop, design, produce, inspect, and sell high quality products with after-sales service, providing our customer with long-lasting satisfaction. However, satisfying our customer is not an easy task. For one thing, we should ensure the safety of Engtek Precision Philippines, Inc. For another, we must eliminate the possibility of trouble or poor quality that may dissatisfy our customer while they are using our products. All companies producing similar products are studying this problem. It is absolutely necessary to further improve the basic quality standards of Engtek products, so as to allow our company to organize a (in the sense of the world) global network. To grow to be one of the leading companies in the world. The Seven QC Tools in problem solving was made popular by a Japanese. It all started with the introduction of statistical quality control that were actually developed by Shewhart and Deming. However the practical application led to the expansion of the use of these tools, Kaoru Ishikawa, head of the Japanese Union of Scientist and Engineers (J.U.S.E.) expanded the use of these approaches in Japanese manufacturing with the introduction of the 7 Quality Control (7QC) tools.

This delegate's hand-out serves a learning material as well as a reference during the practical applications of this tool. There are actually eight tools presented in this training program, with the inclusion of Run Chart to the Seven QC Tools. The run chart is discussed extensively as an added QC tool. Although technically, Run Charts could be classified as a variant to the SPC Control Chart, which is one of the 7 QC Tools. To make this program more practical, the tools are embedded within the QC Story, which is an approach in problem solving and continuous improvement initiate. The 7 QC Tools presented here are the following:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Pareto Diagram Histogram Checked sheet Cause and Effects Diagram Scatter Diagram Control Chart Stratification

The QC Story likewise is presented to follow the Deming Cycle, or the Plan-Do-Check-Action process. As such, the usage of the 7QC tools should not be perceived as of definitive application on each stage, rather, the QC tools could be used variably in any stage of the problem solving process.

During this program, there will be exercises and case studies to put your learning into practice. But the final measure of the 7 QC Tools that you will learn today is effective not on the basis of your answer to the exercise and case study, rather on the practical applications for your problem solving and continuous improvement.

QC Tool : PARETO DIAGRAM

WHAT IS A PARETO DIAGRAM? A Pareto diagram shows the number of defective items, that amount of loss, etc. by listing items arranged in order of quality in the form of a bar graph. The percentage depicted on the Y-axis, on the right-hand side, showing the cumulative occupancy rate (by item) in the form of kinked-line graph. Features of the Pareto Diagram include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Allows the ability to see which item is problematic. Allows the examiner to know the degree of importance of the problem in each item. Allows the examiner to know which rank each item or cumulative items occupies. Allows the examiner to know to what degree each problem has been resolved.

HOW TO CONSTRUCT?

They are created by plotting the cumulative frequencies of the relative frequency data (even count data), in descending order. When this is done, the most essential factors for the analysis are graphically apparent, and in an orderly format.
Problem Scenario: Based on data shown in table 1.1, the procedure of preparing a Pareto diagram is described below. Table 1.1 shows data by item, concerning defects found in an appearance inspection of 500 items of Products A over a period of one month. You gather the record of the defects and tallied the occurrence per defect.

Table 1.1 Data Concerning Appearance Defects.

Step on arm Deformation / dents Burrs White / Brown stainreject Dimension Others TOTAL
Step 1

ITEM Scratch

Number of defective items 14 21 3 12 33 4 2 89

Prepare a calculation chart and arrange the data. Arrange the defects in descending order and plotting the cumulative frequencies of the relative frequency data. 1. 2. 3. 4. Arrange the data in order of frequency of occurrence of specific defect (the number of defect and amount). Obtain the cumulative number of defective items. Calculate the occupancy rate (%) of each item with regards to the whole. Calculate the cumulative occupancy rate of items 3) above.
Cummulative number of defective items 33 54 68 80 84 87 89 Cummulative Occupancy rate (%) 37.1 60.7 76.4 89.9 94.4 97.8 100.0

ITEM White / Brown stain Step on arm Scratch Burrs Dimension reject Deformation / dents Others TOTAL

Number of defective items 33 21 14 12 4 3 2 89

Occupancy rate (%) 37.1 23.6 15.7 13.5 4.5 3.4 2.2 100.0

Step 2: Prepare the Pareto diagram. 1. Enter the characteristics (number of defective items) on the Y-axis, and graduate the Y-axis so as to allow the entry of all the data. 2. The ratio of the length of the Y-axis to the X-axis should be approximately 1:1 to 2:1. 3. Represent the number of cases by item in the form of a bar graph, entering the item of other as the last item. (There should be no clearance between bars.) 4. Represent the cumulative occupancy rate in the form of a kinked-line graph. 5. Put the Y-axis at the extreme right and graduate it. Set the starting point of the kinked-line graph at 0 (%) and the range into five to ten segments and enter value. 6. Enter the necessary items (including the number n of data), model and part name, inspection process, inspection period, date of preparation, and person who prepared the graph.

Quality

(%) 100

80 70 60 50 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 25

White / Brown stain

Deformation / dents

Dimension reject

Step on Arm

Scratch

Figure 1.2 Pareto Diagram for Appearance Defects.

Others

Burrs

Cumulative occupancy rate

75

Number of Defective Items

Model: AL7LE Actuator Inspection Process: Delivery inspection Inspection Period: Nov. 1, 2002 to Nov. 30, 2002 Preparation Date: Dec. 1, 2002 Prepared By: Vilma Reyes

(3) Viewing and Using the Pareto Diagram 1. To determine the target of the point to be improved

As is evident from Fig. 1.2, of all the defective items, only the top two or three items have the great influence. Improving these items will greatly affect the process using comparatively little effort. 2. To investigate the cause of defects and failures. Enter result-related items classified by defective item, location, and process on the X-axis of the Pareto diagram and acknowledge the problem. Then enter cause-related items classified by material, machine, and kind of work, which allows a key to improve to be obtained. 3. Examination of change due to corrective actions. Various methods are available to examine the effects of corrective action taken. When a problem is found in the Pareto diagram, the effects of the corrective actions can be checked using the Pareto diagram.

Inspection Period: July 1, 2002 to July 31, 2002 Number of items inspected: (%) Quality 500 100 150

Model: AL7LE Inspection Process: Delivery inspecion

Preparation Date: November 1, 2002 Prepared by: Vilma Reyes

N = 154
140

130 80

Effect (56 items, 36% ) Inspection Period: November 1, 2002 to November 30, 2002 Number of items inspected: 500 Quality Number of 70 items inspected: 500 60 Nu N = 89 mb er 50 of def 40 ecti ve 30 ite ms 20
10

120

110

Nu mb 100 er of 90 70 def ecti 80 60 ve ite ms 50

40

62 %
60

47 %

Cu mu lati ve occ upa ncy rate

(%)
100

80

40

60

30

40

Cu mu lati ve occ upa ncy rate

20 20

20

10

W h it e / B r o w

S S B Dim Def Ot te cr ur ensi orm he p at rs on atio rs o ch reje n / n ct dent A s Before corrective r actions m

W h it e / B r o w

S S B Dim Def Ot te cr ur ensi orm he p at rs on atio rs o ch reje n / n ct dent A s After corrective r actions m

WHAT IS HISTOGRAM?

QC Tool : HISTOGRAM

Histograms provide a simple, graphical view of accumulated data, including its dispersion and central tendency. In addition to the ease with which they can be constructed, histograms provide the easiest way to evaluate the distribution of data. This histogram evolved to meet the need for evaluating data that occurs at a certain frequency. This is possible because the histogram allows for a concise portrayal of information in a bar graph format. A histogram is a diagram that arranges large quantities of data to enable an easy understanding of the entire data system. This enable examination of how each lot and process are similar. This Histogram allows the general view of the situation, which is difficult to understand by merely looking at the data, to be easily understood; showing approximate average values and discrepancies. The histogram also provides a variety of information useful for understanding and improving the present situation. Features include: 1. It expresses how data is distributed. 2. It expresses the presence of scattered data. 3. It expresses the comparison of obtained data with relevant standards.

The histogram also provides a variety of information useful for understanding and improving the present situation.

n100
28 26 24 22 20

Standard range

Fr eq ue nc y

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 25.28 25.30 25.32 25.34 26.36 26.38 25.40 25.42 25.27 25.29 25.31 25.33 26.35 26.37 25.39 25.41

Part dimension (mm) Usage Histograms are effective Q.C. tools which are used in the analysis of data. They are used as a check on specific process parameters to determine where the greatest amount of variation occurs in the process, or to determine if process specifications are exceeded. This statistical method does not prove that a process is in a state of control. Nonetheless, histograms alone have been used to solve many problems in quality control.

HOW TO MAKE HISTOGRAMS How to make frequency tables? To investigate the distribution of comb hole diameter of AL7LE produced in machining process, the comb hole diameter of 90 actuators are measured as shown in Table 2.1. Let us make a histogram using these data. Table 2.1 RAW DATA
Sample Number 1 -10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 61 - 70 71 - 80 81 - 90 Result of Measurement 2.510 2.527 2.529 2.520 2.535 2.533 2.525 2.531 2.518 5.517 2.536 2.523 2.514 2.523 2.510 2.515 2.545 2.527 2.522 2.506 2.523 2.515 2.526 2.545 2.520 2.524 2.511 2.522 2.541 2.523 2.534 2.525 2.542 2.519 2.522 2.519 2.510 2.512 2.519 2.526 2.532 2.530 2.526 2.520 2.531 2.511 2.515 2.528 2.530 2.552 2.521 2.527 2.519 2.527 2.519 2.521 2.543 2.532 2.502 2.522 2.522 2.519 2.529 2.532 2.536 2.538 2.526 2.530 2.535 2.542 2.529 2.528 2.543 2.529 2.518 2.523 2.522 2.540 2.540 2.522 2.519 2.525 2.524 2.534 2.520 2.514 2.528 2.528 2.513 2.521

Table 2.2 RAW DATA

Sample Number

Result of Measurement
2.510 2.527 2.529 2.520 2.535 2.533 2.525 2.531 2.518 2.517 2.536 2.523 2.514 2.523 2.510 2.515 2.545 2.527 2.522 2.506 2.523 2.515 2.526 2.545 2.520 2.524 2.511 2.522 2.541 2.523 2.534 2.525 2.542 2.519 2.522 2.519 2.510 2.512 2.519 2.526 2.532 2.530 2.526 2.520 2.531 2.511 2.515 2.528 2.530 2.552 2.521 2.527 2.519 2.527 2.519 2.521 2.543 2.532 2.502 2.522 2.522 2.519 2.529 2.532 2.536 2.538 2.526 2.530 2.535 2.542 2.529 2.528 2.543 2.529 2.518 2.523 2.522 2.540 2.540 2.522 2.519 2.525 2.524 2.534 2.520 2.514 2.528 2.528 2.513 2.521

Maximum Value of Line

Minimum Value of Line

1 -10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 61 - 70 71 - 80 81 - 90

2.543 2.541 2.543 2.534 2.552 2.545 2.542 2.545 2.531

Largest Value

2.510 2.506 2.518 2.514 2.502 2.510 2.515 2.513 2.511

Smalest Value

2.552

2.502

PROCEDURE

Step 1 Calculate the range (R)

Obtain the largest and the smallest of observed values and calculate R. R = (the largest observed value) - (the smallest observed value) The largest and the smallest of observed values can be easily obtained in the following manner: Obtain the maximum and the minimum of values from each line of the table of observations, then take the largest of the maximum values and the smallest of the minimum values. These will be the maximum and the minimum of all the observed values. See Table 2.2 Table for Range Calculation

Step 2 Determine the class interval

The class interval is determined so that the range, which includes the maximum and the minimum of values, is divided into intervals of equal breadth. To obtain the interval breadth, divide R by 1, 2 or 5 (or 10, 20, 50: 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, etc.) so as to obtain from 5 to 20 class intervals of equal breadth. When there are two possibilities, use the narrower interval if the number of measured values is 100 or over and the wider interval, if there are 99 or less observed values.

Step 3 Prepare the frequency table form Step 4 Determine the class boundaries

Prepare a form, as in Table 2.3, on which the class mid-point, frequency marks, frequency, etc., can be recorded. Determine the boundaries of the intervals so that they include the smallest and the largest of values, and write these down on the frequency table. First, determine the lower boundary of the first class and add the interval breadth to this to obtain the boundary between the first and second classes. When you do so, mare sure that the first class contains the smallest value and that the boundary value falls on 1/2 of the unit of measurement. Then keep adding the breadth of the interval to the previous value to obtain the second boundary, the third, and so on, and make sure that the last class includes the maximum value.

Step 5 Calculate the mid-point of class

Mid-point of the first class

Using the following equation, calculate the mid-point of class, and write this down on the frequency table.

Sum of the upper and lower boundaries of the first class + 2 Mid-point of the second class Sum of the upper and lower boundaries of the second class = 2 The mid-point of the second class, third class, and so on, may also be obtained as follows:

Mid-point of the second class = mid-point of the first class + class interval, Mid-point of the third class = mid-point of the second class + class interval, and so on.

Step 6 Obtain the frequencies

Read the observed value one by one and record the frequencies falling in each class using tally marks, n group of five, as follows:

Frequency Frequency notation

1 I

2 II

3 III

4 IV

5 V

6 IIII

7 VI

Table 2.3 Frequency Table

Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2.5005 2.5055 2.5105 2.5155 2.5205 2.5255 2.5305 2.5355 2.5405 2.5055 2.5105 2.5155 2.5205 2.5255 2.5305 2.5355 2.5405 2.5455 TOTAL Mid-Point of Class 2.503 2.508 2.513 2.518 2.523 2.528 2.533 2.538 2.543 Frequency Marks (tally) I IIII IIII - IIII IIII - IIII - IIII IIII - IIII - IIII - IIII - II IIII - IIII - IIII - IIII IIII - IIII IIII IIII - I Frequency 1 4 9 14 22 19 10 5 6 90

2. How to make histograms?

PROCEDURE
Step 1
On a graphing paper, mark the horizontal axis with scale. The scale should not be on the base of class interval but it is better to be on the base of unit of measurement of data, 10 grams correspond to 10 mm, for example. This makes it convenient to make comparisons with many histograms which describe similar factors and characteristics as well as with specifications (standards). Leave a space about equal to the class interval on the horizontal axis on each side of the first and the last classes.

Step 2

Mark the left-hand vertical axis with a frequency scale, and, if necessary, draw the right-hand axis and mark it with a relative scale. The height of the class with the maximum frequency should be from 0.5 to 2.0 times the distance between the maximum and the minimum values on the horizontal axis.

Step 3

Mark the horizontal scale with the class boundary values.

Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Using the class interval as a base line, draw a rectangular whose height corresponds with the frequency in the class. Draw a line on the histogram to represent the mean, as also draw a line representing the significant limits, if any. In a blank area of the histogram, note the history of the data (the period during which the data was collected, etc.), the number of data n, the mean x, and the standard deviations, (see figure 2.2) the calculation of X and s will be shown in (3) of Section 2.4

2.3 HOW TO READ HISTOGRAM?

Types of Histogram
It is possible to obtain useful information about the stage of a population b looking at the shape of the histogram. Following are typical shape, and we can use them as clues for analyzing a process. General type (symmetrical or bell-shaped) Shape: Mean value of the histogram is in the middle of the range of data. The frequency is the highest in the middle and becomes gradually lower towards the end. The shape is symmetrical. Note: This is the shape that occurs most often. Comb type (multiple-modal type) Shape: Every other class has a lower frequency. Note: This shape occurs when the number of units of data included in the class varies from class to class or when there is a particular tendency in the way data is rounded off. Positively skew type (Negatively skew type) Shape: The mean value of the histogram is located to the left (right) of the center of range. The frequency decreases somewhat abruptly towards the left (right) but towards the right (left). Left-hand precipice type (Right-hand precipice type) Shape: This means value of the histogram is located far to the left (right) of the central of range. The frequency decreases abruptly on the left (right), and gently towards the right (left). Asymmetrical.

Plateau type Shape: The frequency in each class forms a plateau because the classes have more or less the same frequency except for those all the ends. Note: This shape occurs with a mixture of several distributions having different mean values. Twin-peak type (bimodal type) Shape: The frequency is low near the middle of the range of data, and there is a peak on either side. Note: This shape occurs when two distributions will widely different mean values are mixed. Isolated-peak type Shape: Twin-peak type (bimodal type) Shape: The frequency is low near the middle of the range of data, and there is a peak on either side. Note: This shape occurs when two distributions will widely different mean values are mixed. There is a small isolated which isolated peak in additional to a general-type histogram. Note: This is a shape which appears when there is small inclusion of data from a different distribution, such as in the case of process abnormality, measurement error, or inclusion of data from a different process.

a.) General Type

b.) Comb Type

c.) Positively Skew Type

d.) Left-hand Precipice Type

e.) Plateau Type g.) Isolated-peak Type

f.) Twin-peak Type

Types of Histogram

QC Tool : CHECK SHEET

WHAT IS A CHECK SHEET? A Check Sheet is a paper form on which items to be checked that have been printed already so that data can be collected easily and concisely. Its main purpose are two-fold: 1.) To make data-gathering easy; 2.) To arrange data automatically so that they can be used easily later on.

The collecting and recording of data seems easy but actually is difficult. Usually, the more people process the data, the more writing error are likely to arise. Therefore, the check sheet, on which data can be recorded by means of check marks on simple symbols and on which data is arranged automatically without further copying by hand, becomes a powerful data recording tool.
Check Sheets present information in an efficient, graphical format. This may be accomplished with a simple listing of items. However, the utility of the check sheet may be significantly enhanced, in some instances, by incorporating a depiction of the system under analysis into the form. HOW TO DEVELOP A CHECK SHEET? There is no hard and fix rule in developing check sheets. Remember always though that check sheets should be develop in a way once the data is gathered, there is no need for further transposition of data, rather simply straight for analysis. Viewing and Using Check Sheet

The Check Sheet allows the examiner to understand a general view of the data system at a glance, enabling him/her to know what the problem is. Therefore, it is used to record the defect occurrence status, investigate the cause of defects, etc. There are no fixed forms to the Check Sheet. Therefore it can be used in a wide range of applications if the original form is developed according to a specific usage.

Table 3.1 Check Sheet

Month / Day Defect Program Adjustment Bolt re-tightening Cutter Check-up Others Total Inspector Signature
Signature o f perso n in-charge

10/5

12

13

14

15

16

IIII I 7

IIII I II 7

I III I I 6

II IIII I 8

IIII I I 7

I III II 5

III I 6

II II III 5

I II I II 6

IIII I 6

QC Tools : CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

Find out the main cause
1. Root cause analysis Corrective Action process, and improvement activities, are geared towards preventing recurrence of the symptoms. The symptoms of the problem will not recur only if the root cause of the problem is eliminated.

ANALYSIS

SYMPTOMS

ROOT CAUSE Iceberg

The craft in problem solving is really on how to determine the main cause of the problem.

WHAT IS A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAM?

The cause-and-effect diagram[1] is also called the Ishikawa diagram (after its creator, Kaoru Ishikawa of Japan), or the fishbone diagram (due to its shape). It was created so that all possible causes of a result could be listed in such a way as to allow a user to graphically show these possible causes. From this diagram, the user can define the most likely causes of a result. This diagram was adopted by Dr. W. Edwards Deming as a helpful tool in improving quality. Dr. Deming has taught Total Quality Management in Japan since World War II. He has also helped develop statistical tools to be used for the census and taught the military his methods of quality management. Both, Ishikawa and Deming use this diagram as one the first tools in the quality management process. HOW TO MAKE A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAM? Making a useful cause-and-effect diagram is no easy task. It may safely be said that those who succeed in problem solving in quality control are those who succeed in making a useful cause-and-effect diagram. There are many ways of making the diagram, but two typical methods will be described here. Prior to introducing the procedure, the structure of the cause-and-effect diagram is explained with an example. Structure of Cause-and-Effect Diagram and Example A cause-and-effect diagram is also called a Fishbone diagram since it looks like a skeleton of a fish, as shown in Figure 4.1. It is also occasionally called a tree or river diagram, but the name fishbone is used here. An actual example is shown as Figure 4.2.

Big bone Small bone Medium-sized bone Back bone Characteristi cs

Factors (cause)

Figure 4.1 Structure of Cause-and-effect diagram

Health
Relaxation Rest Amusement Time Sleep Depth Nutrition Calories Meal Quality

Spirit Encouragement Pride Fighting Spirit

Patience
Carefulness Concentration

Devotion Calmness Composure Confidence Defeat in a sports match

Information
Theory Study of opponent Analysis Observation Motion

Power

Schedule Exercise Quantity Quality Advise

Planning
Rules Common sense Strategy

Speed Cooperation

Team Work Form Judgment of Function situation Model Repetition Experience in matches Technique

Example of Cause-and-Effect Diagram

PROCEDURE FOR MAKING A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAM (1) Procedure for making Cause-and-Effect Diagram For Identifying Causes.

1. Procedure Step 1 Determine the quality characteristic. Step 2 Choose one quality characteristic and write it on the right-hand side of a sheet of paper, draw in the backbone for left to right, and enclose the characteristic in square. Next, write the primary causes which affect the quality characteristic as big bone also enclosed by squares. Step 3 Write the causes (secondary causes) which affect the big bones (primary causes) as medium-sized bones, and write the causes (tertiary causes) which affect the medium-sized bones as small bones. Step 4 Assign an importance to each factor, and mark the particularly important factors which seem to have a significant effect on the quality characteristic. Step 5 Write in any necessary information. Instruction and Example

1. Draw a large arrow horizontally across the page pointing to the name of an effect such as Insufficient Solder.

. 2. Draw four or more branches off the large arrow to represent main categories of potential causes. Typical categories are man, machinery, methods, and materials. Continue to tertiary causes or up to additional causes by branching off the diagram.

MAN

MACHINER Y

METHOD S 3. Establish hypothesis for causes

MATERIAL S

The summary sheet from previous chapter provides the relevant information about the problem, and now the Cause-and-effect diagram would identify potential root causes. Establish hypothesis of potential cause, and provide justification for each. Potential Root Cause Rationale

4. Test hypothesis The hypotheses, for it to be proved as true, must be able to withstand the test. There are various tools (particularly statistical tools), in testing whether the hypothesis is true of false. One simple approach is to establish the relationship between the factor and the response, using the Scatter Diagram. CHARACTERISTIC DIAGRAM

1. What is a Characteristics Diagram?

A Characteristics diagram allows quick understanding at a glance, by classifying the causes (i.e. factors) considered to affect the result (i.e. characteristic) of specific kind of work and by using arrows to show the relationship between the items. The diagram, also known as a "fish bone" after its shape, proves extremely useful n arranging many opinions in one diagram. Therefore, he diagram allows the greatest possible number of people concerned to gather and exchange opinions, leading to a firm understanding of the causes of problems and taking he appropriate measure.

2. Preparing a Characteristics Diagram

Step 1.

Determine characteristics

Determine the characteristics in question and draw arrows, which serve as the trunk, from left to right. At the top of the arrows, enter the chosen characteristics and enclose them in boxes. Typical characteristics include: *Quality: defects, and yield; *Cost: *Efficiency: *Others: rate, etc. Dimensions, performance, appearance,

Profit, loss, material cost, and labor cost; Man-hour, operation rate, and production volume; Attendance rate, participation rate, proposition

Step 2. Enter a characteristic at the right end of each big bone and enclose it in a box; one of the *4 M's[1] are usually entered. Alternatively, process names may be entered as factors.

Small bone Factor Miniature bone Medium bone Big bone

Factor

Factor

Characteristic

Factor

Factor

Factor

Figure 1.4 Big, Medium, Small and Miniature Bones in the Characteristics Diagram Step 3 Check the Factors. Check the factors starting from the medium bone and proceeding to the small and miniature bones for each big bone, until you reach an item that is so concrete as to allow you to take action. Than indicate the casual relationship Check the factors starting from the medium bone and proceeding to the small and miniature bones for each big bone, until you reach an item that is so concrete as to allow you to take action. Than indicate the casual relationship using arrows. Encircle, in or , those factors which are likely to greatly affect the characteristics, which will facilitate future consideration of corrective actions. using arrows. Encircle, in or , those factors which are likely to greatly affect the characteristics, which will facilitate future consideration of corrective actions.

1.

Viewing and using the Characteristics Diagram

Various factors are complexly meshed with one another. When all necessary factors are entered in a specific Characteristic diagram, there are large number of bones. In the case of the contrary, there are only a small number of bones. In such a case, factors should be checked again. When using a Characteristic diagram, the use of Pareto diagram and Histogram regarding items enclosed in and will improve the effect of the Characteristic diagram.

WHEN USING THE CHRACTERISTIC DIAGRAM 1. Investigate the cause of claims and defective items. If there is a claim or defective item, investigate the cause of the claim or defective item and decide on which area corrective action should be taken. Decide on which action to begin with, regarding a specific problem, to improve the quality and efficiency and reduce the cost.

Process: Producing Actuators METHOD Perio Preparation Date: Nov. 20, Seaso d Perio Time 2002 Seaso n Time d Prepared By: Mark Siaga n Composition Loading Content Revision Qualit Coolant Kind Size Sequenc Alloy y Purit Pattern e Work elements Lubrica Coolant y powder Segregation Standard nt Aluminum Understanding Volume Qualit Position Power y Procedure Shape Appare Part Flow Mixed power nt Mounting Molding Measuring rate density density Numbe Distributi Method Kin Balanc r of Hardness on d e Densit Weight stages meter PRODUCING y QUALITY Speed Temperatur Composition ACTUATOR Environmen Fatigu e Coolin t Distributi e Production Shap Physica Time g on Meter e l Jig Temperatur Amount of Speed conditi s e Temperatur Weigh work Irritati Shape e on Heatin t Balance Materi on Experien Skil g al Tray Time ce l Degree of Gas flow How it Eagerne Shap Tray understanding flows ss e processing Structur Atmosphe to work Type of capacity e re Structur Education Kind e Gas Usage Amount of Educati Dew Zone Knowledg on poin compositi composition e MAN on MACHIN t E

MATERIAL

QC Tool : SCATTER DIAGRAM

WHAT IS A SCATTER DIAGRAM? A Histogram of Pareto diagram may be used to obtain information using one type of data. On the other hand, there is a diagram called the Scatter diagram, which represents two types of data related to each other. Commonly, while a cause-effect diagram has been used to describe the relationship between two variables, the histogram was used to visualize the structure of the data. However, a means of observing the kinds of relationships between variables was needed. Using the theory of linear regression which originated from studies performed by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911), the scatter diagram was developed so that intuitive and qualitative conclusions could be drawn about the paired data, or variables. The concept of correlation was employed to decide whether a significant relationship existed between the paired data. Furthermore, regression analysis was used to identify the exact nature relationship.
Quenching Temperature (C) 850 870 860 840 850 880 830 840 870 830 840 870 890 870 850 820 Hardness (HRC) 50 52 50 49 51 55 47 46 51 50 48 51 57 53 48 44 Quenching Temperature (C) 910 810 810 900 860 830 850 880 910 860 860 880 810 910 890 900 Hardness (HRC) 55 47 44 57 51 46 46 54 57 49 50 48 55 59 55 56

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

No. 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Table 5.1 Data Sheet Concerning the Relationship

USAGE Scatter diagrams are graphical tools that attempt to depict the influence that one variable has on another. A common diagram of this type usually displays points representing the observed value of one variable corresponding to the value of another variable. Scatter diagrams are used to study possible relationship between two variables. Although these diagrams cannot prove that one variable causes the other, they do indicate the existence of a relationship, as well as the strength of that relationship. Scatter diagrams are used to study possible relationship between two variables. Although these diagrams cannot prove that one variable causes the other, they do indicate the existence of a relationship, as well as the strength of that relationship. The purpose of the scatter diagram is to display what happens to one variables when another variable is changed. The diagram is used to test a theory that the two variables are related. The type of relationship that exits is indicated by the slope of the diagram. Key Terms

Variable - a quality characteristic that can be measured and expressed as a number on some continuous scale of
measurement.

Relationship - relationships between variables exist when one variable depends on the other and changing one variable
will effect the other.

Data Sheet - contains the measurements that were collected for plotting the diagram. Regression - an analysis method used to decide whether there is a statistically significant relationship between two
variables.

HOW TO MAKE A SCATTER DIAGRAM? Scatter diagram is made by the following steps: Step 1 Collect paired data (x, y) between which you want to study the relations, and arrange the data in a table. It is desirable to have at least 30 pairs of data. Step 2 Find the maximum and minimum value for both the x and y. Decide the scale of horizontal and vertical axes so that the both lengths become approximately equal, then the diagram will be easier to read. Keep the number of unit graduations to 3 to 10 for each axis and use round numbers to make it easier to read. When the two variables consists on a factor and quality characteristic, use the horizontal x-axis for the factor and the vertical yaxis for the quality characteristics. Step 3 Plot the data on the section paper. When the same data value are obtained from different observations, show these points either by drawing concentric circles,

, or plot the second point in the immediate vicinity on the first.

Step 4 Enter all necessary items. Make sure that the following items are included so that anyone besides the maker of the diagram can understand it in a glance: a) title of the diagram b) time and interval c) number of pairs of data d) title and units of each axis e) name (etc.) of the person who made the diagram.

PREPARING A SCATTER DIAGRAM Step 1 Gathering corresponding data. 1. A minimum of 30 lots of data are required. Step 2 Prepare a graphing paper. 1. Enter factors (causes) on the X-axis and characteristics (result) on the Y-axis. 2. Do not rely on only two factors or two quality characteristics. 3. Make the maximum and minimum widths on the X-axis almost equal to the maximum and minimum width on the Y-axis. 4. Enter greater values as you go up the Y-axis and to the right on the X-axis. Step 3 Plot data on the graph. Step 4 Enter the period, record, and purpose of data.

(HRC) 60

55
HARDNESS

50

Period:

45 43 800

Oct. 12, 2002 to Nov. 10, 2002 Process Name: Quenching Machine A Preparation Date: Nov. 13, 2002 Prepared by: Carmelo Anthony 850 900 QUENCHING TEMPERATURE (C)

Scatter Diagram Concerning Quenching Temperature and Hardness VIEWING AND USING A SCATER DIAGRAM It is sufficient to know the relationship between a pair of data lots. Positive correlation means that Y increase with X. Negative correlation means that Y decreases when X increases.

Figure 6.1. Tables for Scatter Diagram

(a) Positive correlation

(b) Negative correlation

(c) Positive correlation is likely

(d) Negative correlation is likely.

(e) No correlation

(f) Correlation may be found if stratification is made

1) In the case of (a) or (b), the mere understanding of the causes (X) are sufficient to control results (Y). 1) When as shown in (c) and (d), dots are not densely gathered. INTERPRETATION The scatter diagram is a useful tool for identifying a potential relationship between two variables. The shape of the scatter diagram presents valuable information about the graph. It shows the type of relationship that may be occurring between the two variables. There are several different patterns (meanings) that scatter diagrams can have. The following describe five of the most common scenarios:

The first pattern is positive correlation (see table 5.1 a), that is, as the amount of variable X increase, the variable Y also increase. It is tempting to think this is a cause/effect relationship. This is an incorrect thinking pattern, because correlation does not necessarily mean causality. This simple relationship could be cause by something totally different. For instance, the two variables could be related to a third, such as speed or aluminum temperature. Theoretically, if X is controlled, we have a chance of controlling Y.
Secondly, we have possible positive correlation (see table 5.1 c), that is, if X increase, Y will increase somewhat, but Y seems to be caused by something other than X. Designed experiments must be utilized to verify causality. Finally, there is a non-correlation (see table 5.1 e), which is the data is in random. Opposite to the Positive Correlation is the Negative Correlation a. possible negative correlation, that is, an increase in X will cause a tendency for a decrease in Y, but Y seems to have cause other than X.

a. negative correlation category. An increase in X will cause a decrease in Y. Therefore, if Y is controlled, we have a good chance of controlling X.

QC Tool :

CONTROL CHART

WHAT IS A CONTROL CHART?

Control chart sometimes called run charts, which initially designed by Walter A. Shewhart in 1924. Walter Shewhart developed a system for bringing processes into statistical control by developing ideas that would allow for a system to be controlled using control charts. A control chart consists of a central line, a pair of control limits, one each, allocated above and below the central line, and characteristic value plotted on the chart which represent the state of a process. If all these values are plotted within the control limits without any particular tendency, the process is regarded as being in the controlled state. However, if they fall outside the control limits or show a peculiar form, the process is judged to be out of control. Examples are shown in Figure 6.1.
Upper control Limit

Central Limit

Lower control Limit Control chart for controlled state

Upper control Limit

Central Limit

Lower control Limit Control chart for out-of-control state

Figure 6.1 Example of Control Charts

Run chart evolved from the development of these control charts, but run charts focus more on time patterns while a control chart focuses more on acceptable limits of the process. Shewharts discoveries are the basis of what as known as SQC or Statistical Quality Control. Usage Run charts are used to analyze processes according to time or order. Run charts are useful in discovering patterns that occur over time. Key Terms

Trends:

Trends are patterns or shifts according to time. An upward trend, for instance, would contain a section of data points that increased as time passed.

Population:

A population is the entire data set of the process. If a process produces one thousand parts a day, the population would be the one thousand items. Sample: A sample is a subgroup or small portion of the population that is examined when the entire population cannot be evaluated. For instance, if the process does produce one thousand items a day, the sample size could be perhaps three hundred. TYPES OF CONTROL CHART There are two types of control chart, the one for continuous value and the other for discrete value. The types of charts prescribed but JIS[1] as shown in Table 6.1 and their control lines are shown on Table 6.2.

Table 6.1 Types of Control Chart

Characteristic Value Name

Variables[1]

x R chart (average value and range) x chart (measured value)

Attributes[2]

pn chart (number of defective units) p chart (fraction defective) c chart (number of defective) u chart (number of defects per unit)

Table 6.2 List of Formulas for Control Lines

Types of Control Chart

Upper Control Limit (UCL), Central Lines (CL), Lower Control Lines (LCL) UCL = CL x +=A 2R x LCL = x - A2R UCL = D4R CL = R LCL = D3R UCL = pn + 2.66Rs CL = x LCL = x + 2.66Rs UCL = pn + 3 pn (1-p) CL = pn LCL = pn - 3 pn (1-p) UCL = p + 3pn(1-p)/n CL = p LCL = p - 3pn(1-p)/n UCL = c + 3c CL = c LCL = c - 3c UCL = u + 3u/n CL = u LCL = u - 3un/n

pn

P
c u

HOW TO MAKE A CONTROL CHART?

For x R Chart
Step 1 Collect data Collect approximately 100 data. Divide them into 20 to 25 subgroups with 4 to 5 in each, making each of them uniform within the subgroup. Fill a data sheet with them (see Table 6.3). When there is no technical reason for subgrouping, divide the data in the order they are obtained. The size of a grouping is usually between 2 and 10 in most cases. Table 6.3. Data sheet for x-R Chart
Subgroup no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 X1 47 19 19 29 28 40 15 35 27 23 28 31 22 37 25 7 38 35 31 12 52 20 29 28 42 X2 32 37 11 29 12 35 30 44 37 45 44 25 37 32 40 31 0 12 20 27 42 31 47 27 34 X3 44 31 16 42 45 11 12 32 26 26 40 24 19 12 24 23 41 29 35 38 52 15 41 22 15 X4 35 25 11 59 36 38 33 11 20 37 31 32 47 38 50 18 40 48 24 40 24 3 32 32 29 TOTAL AVERAGE X5 20 34 44 38 25 33 26 38 35 32 18 22 14 30 19 32 37 20 47 31 25 28 22 54 21

Sx
178 146 101 197 146 157 116 160 145 163 161 134 139 149 158 111 156 144 157 148 195 97 171 163 141

x 35.6 29.2 20.2 39.4 29.2 31.4 23.2 32 29 32.6 32.2 26.8 27.8 29.8 31.6 22.2 31.2 28.8 31.4 29.6 39 19.4 34.2 32.6 28.2 746.6

R 27 18 33 30 33 29 21 33 17 22 26 10 33 26 31 25 41 36 27 28 28 28 25 32 27 686 27.44

Sx

SR
29.864

Step 2 Calculate Xs Calculate the average value x for subgroup. x = X1 + X2 + X3 . . . + Xn n where n is the size of a subgroup. The result is generally calculated to one decimal place more than that of the original data. Step 3 Calculate Xs Calculate the gross average x by dividing the total of xs of each subgroup by the number of subgroup k. Step 4 Calculate R Calculate the range of each subgroup R by subtracting the minimum value from the maximum value of data in a subgroup. R = (maximum value in a subgroup) (minimum value in a subgroup) Step 5 Calculate R Calculate the average R of the Range R, by dividing the total of the Rs of each subgroup by the number of groups k. R = R1 + R2 + R3 . . . + Rn k R should be calculated to two decimal places more than of the measured value (the same decimal place as that of x). Step 6 Calculate the Control Lines Calculate each of the control lines for the x chart and the R chart by the following formulas. X chart Central line: CL = x

X chart Central line: CL = x Upper control limit: UCL = x A2R Lower control limits: LCL = x-A2R R chart Central line: CL = R Upper control limit: UCL D4R Lower control limit: LCL D3R A2, D4 and D3 are the coefficients determined by the size of a subgroup (n), and are shown in table 6.4 and also in table A.2 of the appendix. Table 6.4 List of Coefficients fro x R Chart Size of Subgroup n 2 3 4 5 6
X Chart

R Chart D3 -----D4 3,267 2,575 2,282 2,115 2,004 D2 1,128 1,693 2,059 2,326 2,534

A2 1,880 1,023 729 577 483

Step 7 Draw the control lines First, prepare a sheet of squared paper and mark the left-hand vertical axis with the value of x and R and the horizontal axis with the subgroup number. Assign the upper control limit and lower control limit at width of 20 to 30mm. Draw a solid line the central line and dotted line for both of the control limits. Step 8 Plot the point Mark the x and R value of each subgroup on the same vertical lines in the order of subgroup number. Mark the subgroup number on the horizontal line at intervals of 2 to 5mm. Put marks for x and x marks for R for easy recognition and circle them for values outside the limits. Step 9 Write necessary items Write the size of subgroup (n) in the upper left-hand corner of the x chart. Write in also other necessary items relevant to the process, such as the names of the process and products, period, measuring method, work condition, shift, etc

Example:
Step 1. See table 1.3 for data reference Step 2. As for the first group Step 3. Step 4. For the first group Step 5. x = (47 + 33 + 44 + 35 + 20) / 5 = 35.6 x = (35.6 + 29.2 + . . . + 28.2) / 25 = 29.86 R = 47 20 = 27

R = (27 + 18 + . . . + 27) / 25 = 27.44

Step 6.

X chart
CL UCL : x = 29.86 : x + A 2R : 29.86 + 0.577 x 27.44 = 45.69 : x A 2R : 29.86 0.577 x = 14.03

LCL

R chart
CL UCL LCL
50 40

: R = 27.44 : D4R = 2.115 x 27.44 = 58.04 : --- (not considered)

UCL = 45.69

X 30
20

CL = 29.86

LCL = 14.03

60

UCL = 58.04
40

R
20

CL = 27.44

10

15

20

25

HOW TO READ A CONTROL CHART?