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Basic Concepts
Thermodynamics
Ability to cause change Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power) or Turn heat into power
Thermodynamics:
Laws of Energy
Energy can change from one form to another but total amount remains constant
Can neither create nor destroy energy Energy has quality as well as quantity
History
Thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics
Statistical thermodynamics
Units
Base units
Derived units
Units
Systems
SI, international
Mass based Decimal system
Key Units
Key Units
Newton (N): force required to accelerate a mass of one kg at a rate of one meter/second2 Pound-force (lbf): force required to accelerate a mass of 32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a rate of one foot/second2 Weight is a force, mass is not weight
Key Units
Specific weight : weight per unit volume or = g where is density and g is the gravitational constant. Work (energy): force times distance, newton-meter (Nm) called a joule (J) Energy is English system is BTU: energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68F by 1F.
1BTU = 1.0551 kJ
Dimensional Homogeneity
in space chosen for study Surroundings: everything outside the system Boundary: the surface that separates the system and the surroundings
Closed System (Control Mass): fixed amount of mass, no mass can cross boundary, energy can cross boundary Special case: no energy crosses boundary,
isolated system
Open Systems (Control Volumes): selected region in space, both mass and energy cross the boundary of the system
Properties of a System
Characteristics of a system are called Properties Examples: pressure, temperature, mass, volume Intensive Properties: independent of mass of system
Properties
Extensive Properties
Specific Properties
Examples: specific volume v = V/m specific total energy e = E/m Convention: extensive properties, upper case, intensive properties, lower case Exceptions: mass, pressure, temperature
Continuum
An assumption that allows us to work problems Disregards atomic nature of substance Continuum assumption allows:
= m/V
(kg/m3)
(m3/kg)
V = V/m = 1/
Specific Gravity: ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard substance at a give temperature.
Specific Weight
State
State is when all the properties of a system have fixed, unchanging, values A system is said to be at a state when all the properties in the system can be measured or calculated and the system is not undergoing a change.
State
Equilibrium
Equilibrium implies a state of balance, no unbalanced driving forces in the system Equilibrium types:
Thermal: system at same temperature Mechanical: consistent pressure Phase: at equilibrium level Chemical: no chemical reactions occur
State Postulate
State postulate: the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties Simple compressible system if no electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, surface tension effects Independent if one can be varied while the other is held constant
State
Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called a path of the process
Processes
Quasi- Processes
When a process moves so slowly that all parts of the system change at the same rate and are in equilibrium with all other parts of the system, the process is called quasi-static or a quasi-equilibrium process A quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized process and does not occur in nature.
Iso- processes
Cycle
Special process where the process at the final state returns to the initial state
Steady-Flow Process
Steady: no change with time Uniform: no change with location over a specific region Opposite of steady: unsteady or transient
Steady-Flow Process
Steady-flow process is a process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily
Steady-Flow Process
Under steady-flow conditions, the mass and energy contents of a control volume remain constant
Temperature
Relative: freezing cold, cold, warm, hot, red-hot Reference to know events, solidifying of water, vaporizing of water
Thermal Equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium occurs when no temperature gradient exists, both objects are at same temperature
Zeroth Law
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature, even is they are not in contact.
Temperature Scales
Temperature Scales
Thermodynamic temperature scales, absolute scales Based on absolute zero temperature SI system: Kelvin scale, freezing point of water at 273.15 units (K) English system: Rankine scale, freezing point of water at 459.67 units (R) Ideal-gas temperature scale
Temperature Relationships
Kelvin to Celsius: T(K) = T(C) + 273.15 Rankine to Fahrenheit: T(R) = T(F) + 459.67 Between the English and SI systems:
Temperature Relationships
Note that:
Pressure
Pressure is a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area Units, force/unit area, N/m2, called a pascal (Pa) 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
Pressure
Absolute pressure: relative to absolute vacuum (absolute zero pressure) Gage pressure: relative to atmospheric pressure Pgage = Pabs - Patm Pvac = Patm Pabs
Pressure
P = P2 P1 = gz = sz P = Patm + gh or Pgage = gh
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Problem-Solving Technique
Problem statement Schematic Assumptions & approximations Physical laws Properties Calculations Reasoning, verification, discussion