Organizational Behavior Slides

Organizational Behavior
What is an Organization? Organization is a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of a group of people, which functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve common goal or a set of goals. Organization is a collection of people who work together to achieve individual or organizational goals. Organization is group of people with specific responsibilities acting together for achieving specific purpose. Organization is a social arrangement that pursues collective goals. Organization is a collection of people working together in a division of labour to achieve common purpose.
Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN
Organizational Behaviour
What is Organizational Behaviour?

A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structures have on behaviour within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organizations effectiveness and achieving goals.
Why to study Organizational Behaviour
Why to study Organizational Behaviour? Organizational Behaviour facilitates the process of explaining, understanding, predicting, maintaining and changing employee behaviour in an organizational setting.
Organizational Behaviour focuses on five levels of analysis: Individual Inter-personal Group Organizational Environmental
Study of Organizational Behaviour becomes important because of broad nature and scope of the subject:
Why to study Organizational Behaviour
Organizational Behavioour is Inter-disciplinary: It integrates knowledge from various relevant disciplines e.g. Psychology, Sociology, Political Science, Economics, Medical Science, Engineering etc. Organizational Behaviour is an Applied Science: It is oriented towards understanding the forces that affect behaviour so that their influences can be predicted, monitored and guided towards better and effective functioning of the organization. Behavioural Orientation: It is directly connected with the human side of management. More precisely, it looks at all the management functions from behavioural perspective. Contingency Approach: There are few absolutes in Organizational Behaviour. The approach is directed towards developing managerial actions that are most appropriate for a specific situation.
Challenges and Opportunities for Organizational Behaviour
Challenges and Opportunities for Organizational Behaviour Responding to globalization Shifting Work/Employment Relationships Work-life balance Empowering people Ethical behaviour Responding to labour shortage Improving people skill Managing workforce Improving Quality and Productivity
Personality
Personality refers to the way in which a person views and understands himself, and the way in which he interacts with people and reacts to situations. An individual's personality is influenced by factors like heredity, external environment, and personsituation interaction. Many personality theorists have tried to explain the development of human personality. According to Daniel Levinson, an individual's life can be divided into adult, mid-life and late adult stages. The personality of an individual, Levinson argues, develops to some extent at each stage of his lifecycle. Another theorist, Hall, suggested that the personality development of an employee takes place in four stages: exploration, establishment, maintenance and decline. Chris Argyris (Immaturity-Maturity model) proposed that human personality moves along a continuum from immaturity (infancy) to maturity (adulthood). John Harrold proposed the personality-job fit theory in which he established a relationship among personality characteristics, the requirements of a job, and job performance.
Attitude
Attitude Attitudes are evaluative statements (favorable or unfavorable) about objects, people or events. Attitudes are acquired from parents, teachers and members of the peer group, apart from the predispositions acquired at birth.
Impression management
Impression management is a process people use to control the perceptions or impressions about themselves, a bit like personal branding. Individuals may believe they are being judged or perceived based on their outward appearance, personality or other subjective opinions by other people. Impression management attempts to control these perceptions from other people through the development of self presentation methods and techniques used to control outward perceptions or impressions. Common self presentation methods include authentic, ideal or tactical styles of impression management.
Learning
To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning also may involve a change in attitude or behavior. Children learn to identify objects at an early age; teenagers may learn to improve study habits; and adults can learn to solve complex problems. Pilots and aviation maintenance technicians (AMTs) need to acquire the higher levels of knowledge and skill, including the ability to exercise judgment and solve problems. The challenge for the aviation instructor is to understand how people learn, and more importantly, to be able to apply that knowledge to the learning environment.
Primary Motives Human motives are variously called physiological, biological, unlearned, or primary. Two criteria must be met in order for a motive to be included in the primary classification: It must be unlearned, and it must be physiologically based.
General Motives

The Curiosity, Activity Motives The Affection Motive
Secondary Motives

The Power Motive The Achievement Motive The Affiliation Motive The Security Motive The Status Motive
Adams' equity theory.
Adams called personal efforts and rewards and other similar 'give and take' issues at work respectively 'inputs' and 'outputs'.
These terms help emphasise that what people put into their work includes many factors besides working hours, and that what people receive from their work includes many things aside from money. Adams used the term 'referent' others to describe the reference points or people with whom we compare our own situation, which is the pivotal part of the theory. Crucially this means that Equity does not depend on our input-to-output ratio alone - it depends on our comparison between our ratio and the ratio of others.
Inputs
..Inputs are typically: effort, loyalty, hard work, commitment, skill, ability, adaptability, flexibility, tolerance, determination, heart and soul, enthusiasm, trust in our boss and superiors, support of colleagues and subordinates, personal sacrifice, etc.
Equity dependent on comparing own ratio of input/output with ratios of 'referent'

others People need to feel that there is a fair balance between inputs and outputs. Crucially fairness is measured by comparing one's own balance or ratio between inputs and outputs, with the ratio enjoyed or endured by relevant ('referent') others.
Outputs are typically all financial rewards - pay, salary,
benefits, pension arrangements, bonus and commission - plus intangibles - recognition, reputation, praise and thanks, interest, responsibility, travel, training, development, sense of achievement and advancement, promotion, etc.
ERG Theory of Motivation

ERG theory of motivation To bring Maslows need hierarchy theory of motivation in synchronization with empirical research, Clayton Alderfer redefined it in his own terms. His rework is called as ERG theory of motivation. He recategorized Maslows hierarchy of needs into three simpler and broader classes of needs: Existence needs- These include need for basic material necessities. In short, it includes an individuals physiological and physical safety needs.
ERG Theory of Motivation
Relatedness needs- These include the aspiration individuals have for maintaining significant interpersonal relationships (be it with family, peers or superiors), getting public fame and recognition. Maslows social needs and external component of esteem needs fall under this class of need. Growth needs- These include need for selfdevelopment and personal growth and advancement. Maslows self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs fall under this category of need.
Difference between Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory and Alderfers ERG Theory

ERG Theory states that at a given point of time, more than one need may be operational. ERG Theory also shows that if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is subdued (quit or depressed), there is an increase in desire for satisfying a lower-level need. According to Maslow, an individual remains at a particular need level until that need is satisfied. While according to ERG theory, if a higher- level need aggravates, an individual may revert to increase the satisfaction of a lower- level need. For instance- when growth need aggravates, then an individual might be motivated to accomplish the relatedness need and if there are issues in accomplishing relatedness needs, then he might be motivated by the existence needs.
Difference between Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory and Alderfers ERG Theory
So Maslows need hierarchy theory is rigid as it assumes that the needs follow a specific and orderly hierarchy and unless a lower-level need is satisfied, an individual cannot proceed to the higher-level need; ERG Theory of motivation is very flexible as he perceived the needs as a range/variety rather than perceiving them as a hierarchy.
Maslow's Motivation Theory

Maslow's motivation theory In 1943, Dr. Abraham Maslow 's article "A Theory of Human Motivation " appeared in Psychological Review, which were further expanded upon in his book: Toward a Psychology of Being In this article, Abraham H. Maslow attempted to formulate a needs-based framework of human motivation and based upon his experiences with people.
The basis of Maslow's motivation theory is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower factors need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, survival, safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs "deficiency needs." As long as we are motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward selfactualization. Satisfying needs is healthy, while preventing gratification makes us sick or act evilly.
As a result, for adequate workplace motivation, it is important that leadership understands the active needs active for individual employee motivation. In this manner, Maslow's model indicates that fundamental, lower-order needs like safety and physiological requirements have to be satisfied in order to pursue higher-level motivators along the lines of self-fulfillment. As depicted in the following hierarchical diagram, sometimes called 'Maslow's Needs Pyramid' or 'Maslow's Needs Triangle', after a need is satisfied it stops acting as a motivator and the next need one rank higher starts to motivate.
Nawab Ali Khan, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Self-Actualization
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Safety Needs Physiological Needs

Physiological Needs Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as: Air Water Food Sleep According to this theory, if these fundamental needs are not satisfied then one will surely be motivated to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and esteem are not recognized until one satisfies the needs basic to existence.

Safety Needs Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by: Living in a safe area Medical insurance Job security Financial reserves According to the Maslow hierarchy, if a person feels threatened, needs further up the pyramid will not receive attention until that need has been resolved.

Social Needs Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level motivators awaken. The first level of higher level needs are social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with others and may include: Friendship Belonging to a group Giving and receiving love
Esteem Needs (SELF RESPECT & ACCEPTANCE)

After a person feels that they "belong", the urge to attain a degree of importance emerges. Esteem needs can be categorized as external motivators and internal motivators. Internally motivating esteem needs are those such as self-esteem, accomplishment, and self respect. External esteem needs are those such as reputation and recognition. Some examples of esteem needs are: Recognition (external motivator) Attention (external motivator) Social Status (external motivator) Accomplishment (internal motivator) Self-respect (internal motivator)

Self-Actualization ( FULFILLMENT OF GOALS & DREAMS) Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's motivation theory. It is about the quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are always new opportunities to continue to grow. Self-actualized people tend to have motivators such as: Truth Justice Wisdom Meaning

Level 5 = Self-Actualization FULFILLMENT OF GOALS & DREAMS Need for self-fulfillment. Desire to realize your full potential and become the best you are capable of becoming. Level 5 = Self-Actualization CREATIVITY Be a self-starter, have enthusiasm, be creative, be dedicated, enjoy challenges, love to accomplish results!

Level 4 = Self-Esteem SELF RESPECT & ACCEPTANCE Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. Contains the desire to feel important, strong and significant. Level 4 = Self-Esteem BRAINPOWER Display your talents and skills, have self-confidence, appreciate attention and recognition from others.

Level 3 = Love & Relationships COMMUNICATION & RESPONSE Need to be loved and to love. Includes the desire for affection and belonging. Level 3 = Love & Relationships VALIDATION Join and be active in clubs and groups, be able to talk to others, contribute to society, marry and have a family.

Level 2 = Your Family & Work SOCIAL SAFETY & SECURITY Need to be safe from physical and psychological harm in the present and future. Level 2 = Your Family & Work SURVIVAL SKILLS Work, save for future, improve skills and talents, be responsible, and want

Level 1 = Your Body PHYSICAL SAFETY & SECURITY Need to stay alive! Biological and cultural imperatives to live. Includes having enough healthy food, air, and water to survive. Level 1 = Your Body SURVIVAL SKILLS Eat, sleep, and take care of your bodily needs, provide
Conflict

Conflict: It arises when there is a disagreement in significant issues amongst individuals, parties, groups or organizations. Conflict Management Strategies: Forcing - using formal authority or other power that you possess to satisfy your concerns without regard to the concerns of the party that you are in conflict with.
Conflict

Accommodating - allowing the other party to satisfy their concerns while neglecting your own. Avoiding - not paying attention to the conflict and not taking any action to resolve it. Compromising - attempting to resolve a conflict by identifying a solution that is partially satisfactory to both parties, but completely satisfactory to neither. Collaborating co-operating with the other party to understand their concerns and expressing your own concerns in an effort to find a mutually and completely satisfactory solution (win-win).
Power

Power The ability to do something or act in a particular way. OR The capacity to influence the behavior of others, the emotions, or the course of events.
Power
Sometimes people believe that power is a bad thing. The issue becomes what kind of power a person has and how someone uses that power. Here are some of the common types of power found in the workplace.
Coercive power is associated with people who are in a position to

punish others. People fear the consequences of not doing what has been asked of them.
Connection power is based upon who you know. This person knows,
and has the ear of, other powerful people within the organization.
Expert power comes from a persons expertise . This is commonly a

person with an acclaimed skill or accomplishment. A person who has access to valuable or important information possesses
Informational Power.
Power
Legitimate power comes from the position a person

holds. This is related to a persons title and job responsibilities. You might also hear this referred to as positional power. People who are well-liked and respected can have
Referent Power. Reward Power is based upon a persons ability to

provide rewards. Those rewards might come in the form of job assignments, schedules, pay or benefits.
STRESS

STRESS: Stress is the emotional and physical strain caused by our response to pressure from the outside world. Common stress reactions include tension, inability to concentrate, and a variety of physical symptoms that include headache and a fast heartbeat. It's almost impossible to live without some stress. And most of us wouldn't want to, because it gives life some spice and excitement. But if stress gets out of control, it may harm your health, your relationships, and your enjoyment of life.
Stress in the workplace

Stress in the workplace has become an increasingly hot topic over the past few decades. Stress in the workplace is obviously important to employees but management is also concerned about stress in the workplace for several reasons. Increased stress in the workplace has been shown to increase absenteeism and employee turnover. Increased stress in the workplace also increases medical and insurance costs because of rising Workers compensation rates and awards due to mounting stress in the workplace suits.
In addition, stress in the workplace reduces productivity, which adversely affects the bottom line and can lower profits causing company's stock price to fall. The American Institute of Stress estimates that stress in the workplace costs U.S. corporations over $300 billion annually, or more than ten times the cost of all strikes combined. In addition, employers may be held liable if they do not offer programs designed to reduce stress in the workplace.
The ability to lower levels of stress in the workplace has been shown to improve employee health and quality of life as well as boosting the bottom line. These are some of the reasons that Employee Assistance programs to reduce stress in the workplace by providing services like anger and time management and learning relationship skill. Some even offer marital counseling, since stress at home often spills over to affect job performance that increases stress in the workplace.
There are many causes of stress in the workplace. Some common causes of stress in the workplace include working long hours, feeling that you are being treated unfairly, not having any acknowledgement or reward for a job well done, and most importantly, increased demands but having little control or decision making latitude of your work activities. This latter combination of factors are the most important contributors to stress in the workplace and have been shown in scientific studies to be associated with higher rates of hypertension and heart attacks.
A lack of job security is also cited as one of the major causes of stress in the workplace and has been a growing problem due to more downsizing, hostile takeovers and mergers. This type of stress in the workplace can affect everyone from data entry clerks and salespersons to supervisors, middle management and top executives.
Office politics are a frequent cause of stress in the workplace and can be due to fierce competition for promotion, discrimination because of race, gender, religion or age. This common source of stress in the workplace is often intensified if workers have no outlet to complain or feel that pointing out such injustices will only make things worse. Problems related to office politics also tend to get worse during downsizing, acquisitions and mergers so that stress in the workplace increases further.
Sources of Stress

Sources of Stress Organizational stress does not solely have its roots in factors due to job of an individual but individual personal reason also has a major role in factors leading to stress. The stressors can be of following types
I) Extra organizational stressors It refers to the factors that are

more personal and related more to individual, like : Societal patterns Technological changes Changed lifestyle Relocation of work or family Unexpected happening or changes in life Sociological variables like race, sex and class leads to stress
Sources of Stress
II) Organizational Stressors- They emerge from reasons related to

organization or job assigned to individual. They can be of following reasons a) High stress job- It refers to work which involves hectic schedule and complex job responsibilities which result into imbalance in personal and work a life and also overwork may affect physical health of individual resulting into ineffective work and dissatisfaction among employees leading imbalance in family or personal life also b) Job role Certain job characteristics like job overload, job assignment, job responsibility and responsibility of others, and constant pressure causes stress.
Sources of Stress

c) Improper working condition Sometimes even the physical condition, the infrastructure and missing in basic facilities of the organization lead to stress and improper work efficiency. d) Under utilization of skills If the skills remain underutilized it leaves the person de-motivated due to scarcity of opportunities for growth resulting into frequent absenteeism, aloofness( not friendly), role ambiguity, instability and dissatisfaction. e) Organizational Politics Competition within departments if improperly handled results into negative feelings, fault finding and high role ambiguity which spoil the overall culture and climate of organization.
Sources of Stress
III) Individual Stressors

Since each individual's disposition and perception for taking and handling stress varies, so the level of stress and its causes are more individual in nature. The causes of individual stressors are a) Role ambiguity It can be due to lack of training, improper knowledge of subject, poor communication channel, friction between superior and subordinates etc. b) Psychological Hardiness It decides the level and capacity of a person to handle stress since it varies from individual to individual. Thus people having high level of hardiness in handling stress are persons who know how to handle situation better and in a planned way so as to reduce level of stress c) Type of Personality As per the category Type A are people who have high level of commitment, are competitive,, aggressive, and exhibit different behavior patterns. They desire to achieve. Such personalities are more prone to chances of stress and incompatibility. Type B are those who have a relaxed and balanced approach and are more confident in their approaches towards work. They are less likely to be influenced or harmed by stress.
Stress Coping Strategies for Organization
After identifying the types and causes that lead to individual, organizational stress the need arises to remedies these causes so as to save organization and people from being stressful, unproductive and dissatisfied. The organization and the HR department needs to keep a proper eye and control on the organization activities like A) Job related Strategies * Proper job designing and matching the job * Proper selection and placement * Training to reduce stress * Proper and planned job delegation and allocation of task * Monetary and non monetary benefits B) Emotion focused strategies * Creating open communication channels * Employee assistance programs * Team building exercises
Stress Coping Strategies for Organization

C) Problem focused strategy They hit the problem directly after analyzing the possible cause of stress. They can be practiced in form of * Training employees for best time management * Training to perform in a team * Job evaluation * Empowering employees * Participative exercises to build up involvement, trust.
Stress Warning Signs and Symptoms

Cognitive Symptoms Emotional Symptoms Memory problems Inability to concentrate short temper Poor judgment inability to relax Seeing only the negative Sense of loneliness and Anxious or racing thoughts isolation Constant worrying Depression or general unhappiness Physical Symptoms Behavioral Symptoms Aches and pains Eating more or less Diarrhea or constipation Sleeping too much or too Chest pain, rapid heartbeat little Frequent colds neglecting responsibilities Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to relax Nervous habits (e.g. nail biting, etc etc)
How to Manage Stress

How to manage stress You may feel like the stress in your life is out of your control, but you can always control the way you respond. Managing stress is all about taking charge: taking charge of your thoughts, your emotions, your schedule, your environment, and the way you deal with problems. Stress management involves changing the stressful situation when you can, changing your reaction when you cant, taking care of yourself, and making time for rest and relaxation.
Strengthen your relationships

Strengthen your relationships A strong support network is your greatest protection against stress. When you have trusted friends and family members you know you can count on, lifes pressures dont seem as overwhelming. So spend time with the people you love and dont let your responsibilities keep you from having a social life. If you dont have any close relationships, or your relationships are the source of your stress, make it a priority to build stronger and more satisfying connections.
Tips for reaching out and building relationships:
Help someone else by volunteering. Have lunch or coffee with a co-worker. Call or email an old friend.
Go for a walk with a buddy. Schedule a weekly dinner date join a club.
How to relax
You cant completely eliminate stress from your life, but you can control how much it affects you. Relaxation techniques such as Breath control and deep breathing activate the bodys relaxation response, a state of restfulness that is the opposite of the stress response. When practiced regularly, these activities lead to a reduction in your everyday stress levels and a boost in your feelings of joy. They also increase your ability to stay calm and collected under pressure.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is in regard to one's feelings or state-of-mind regarding the nature of their work. Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors, eg, the quality of one's relationship with their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfillment in their work, etc. There is no strong acceptance among researchers, consultants, etc., that increased job satisfaction produces improve job performance -- in fact, improved job satisfaction can sometimes decrease job performance. For example, you could let sometime sit around all day and do nothing. That may make them more satisfied with their "work" in the short run, but their performance certainly didn't improve.
Organizational commitment

Organizational commitment What constitutes commitment in organizations? In one view, commitment is the total capacity to act in ways that meet the organization's goals and interests. Although a simple enough definition, it is inadequate. The problem is that commitment has now been defined in a number of widely varying ways. The sociologist Etzioni argues that commitmentand the authority that organizations have over membersis rooted in the nature of employee involvement in the organization.
Organizational commitment

People become committed to an organization to the extent that they perceive some beneficial or equitable exchange relationship. The management guru Kanter takes a different view of commitment, arguing that different types of commitment result from different behavioral requirements placed on members by the organization. So, involvement takes three forms, i.e., Continuance commitment has to do with a member's dedication to the survival of the organization and results from having people make sacrifices for and investments in the organization. Cohesion commitment is attachment to social relations in an organization; it can be enhanced by having employees publicly renounce previous social ties or engage in ceremonies that enhance group cohesion. Control commitment is a member's attachment to the norms of an organization that shape behavior in desired ways. It exists when employees believe that the organization's norms and values are important guides to their behavior.
Perception
What is perception? According to Stephen P Robbins, Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Perception is the unique inerptretation of the same situation Fred Luthans has defned Perception as a complicated interactions of selection, organization and interpretation of stimuli.
Perceptual Process
Perceptual Process Objects in the environment-Observation-Perceptual Selection-Perceptual Organization-Interpretation-Response Perceptual Selectivity Perceptual selection is the process by which people filter out irrelevant or less significant information so that they can deal with the most important matters. Perceptual Selection is determined by External Factors Internal Factors
Perceptual Process
External Factors affecting perceptual selection:

Size: The larger the size, the more likely it is to be perceived. The tallest person in the office will invariably be noticed. Intensity: The more intense an external factor (bright light, loud noise, high pitch sound etc.) the more likely it is to be perceived. One may notice that the TV commercials always have high pitch as compared to normal telecast. Contrast: External factors that stand out against the background or things that are not which people expect are more likely to be perceived. Motion: A moving factor is more likely to be perceived than stationary factor. Films (motion pictures) attract people more than a static picture.
Perceptual Process
Repetition: A repeated factor is more likely to be noticed. Marketing managers use this principle in trying to get attention of the prospective customers. Novelty and familiarity: Either novelty or familiarity will can attract attention. People would quickly notice a person riding an elephant on a busy street in Delhi. On the other hand, one is likely to spot a familiar face in a crowd or a familiar voice even if there is a lot of noise and confusion. A combination of these or similar factor may be operating at any time to affect perception. Along with the internal factors, they determine whether any particular stimulus is more or less likely to be noticed.
Perceptual Process
Internal factors affecting perceptual selection: Personality: Personality has an interesting influence on what and how people perceive. For example, conscientious people tend to pay more attention to external environmental cues than does a less conscientious person. Less conscientious persons are impulsive, careless, and irresponsible. They see their environment as hectic and unstable which affects the way they make perceptual selections. On the other hand, more conscientious people organize their perceptions into neat categories, allowing themselves to retrieve data quickly and in an organized manner. In other words, they are careful, methodical, and disciplined in making perceptual selections.
Perceptual Process
Learning: Learning determines the development of perceptual sets. A perceptual set is an expectation of a particular interpretation based on past experiences with the same or an identical object. In organizational settings, past experiences of the managers and employees influence their perceptions to a great extent.
Motivation: A persons most urgent needs and desires at any particular time can influence perception. People perceive things that promise to help satisfy their needs and that they have found rewarding in the past. Also, people process pleasant event more efficiently and accurately than they do unpleasant events. For example, an employee who receives both positive and negative feedback during the appraisal meeting may more easily and clearly remember the positive statements than the negative ones.
Perceptual Process
Perceptual Organization
Figure-ground: Perceived objects stand out as separable from their general background. In the context of organizations, a company may import a new technology in order to compete in the globalized economy. Here import of a new technology is a figure and global competitive environment is the background. The employees will immediately notice the installation of new technology whereas the global competitive environment is not visible by naked eyes. Perceptual grouping: There is a general tendency among individuals to group several stimuli together into a recognizable pattern. There are certain underlying uniformities in grouping. When simple constellations of stimuli are presented to people, they tend to group them together by closure, continuity, proximity, and similarity.
Perceptual Process
Closure: An individual may perceive a whole while one actually does not exists. The persons perceptual process closes the gaps that are unfilled by from sensory inputs. In a formal organization, employees may either see a whole that does not exits or not be able to put the pieces together into a whole that does exists. For example, head of a project team may take the view that the entire team agrees to his plan of action whereas there are differing views among the team members, which remains unarticulated in a formal manner. On the other hand, a functional team might view/perceive that their objectives are the objectives of the whole company.
Perceptual Process
Continuity: An individual tend to perceive continuous lines/patterns. This leads to inflexible thinking on the part of organizational members (both managers and employees). Thus, only the obvious, continuous patterns or relationships are perceived. For example, a new design for some production process or product may be limited to obvious flows or continuous lines/patterns. New innovative ideas or designs may not be perceived. Proximity: A group of stimuli that are close together will be perceived as a whole pattern of parts belonging together. For example, several employees in an organization may be identified as a single group because of physical proximity. Several workers who work on a particular process may be viewed as a single whole. If the output is low and the supervisor reports a number of grievances from the group, the management may perceive that all the workers working on that particular process are trouble makers whereas in some of them might be loyal and dedicated employees.
Perceptual Process
Similarity: The greater the similarity of stimuli, the greater is the tendency to perceive them as a common group. Similarity is conceptually related to proximity but in most cases stronger than proximity. In an organization, all employees who wear blue collars may be perceived as a common group, when in reality, each employee is a unique individual. This might also lead to perceptual error termed as stereotyping.
Perceptual Process
Perceptual Constancy: The individual is likely to give meaning to stimuli in the same way whenever exposed to them unless and until objective reality has been revealed more broadly by way of undoing the perceptual errors. For example, a manager in the company who believes that female employees are poor performers would continue to have the same perception until and unless the latter prove that they are better than their male colleagues.
Perceptual Process
Perceptual Context: It gives meaning and value to simple stimuli in the environment. The organizational culture and structure provide the primary context in which workers and managers perceive things. Thus, a verbal order, an e-mail message, a new policy, a suggestion, a raised eyebrow, a pat on the back takes on special meaning and value when placed in the context of work organization
Importance of Learning
Importance of Learning:
Learning is a relatively permanent change in the frequency of occurrence of a specific individual behavior. The world is a place
of change, and everyday new changes are taking place, new laws are introduced, new policies are made and new ideas and approaches are formed which require reasonable changes in the way we work. So if we are not constantly updating ourselves with new knowledge and techniques, we are likely to become obsolete over period of time. The process of continuous learning involves being clear about what is required of the individual in high-quality jobs. It also involves making sure that we have the knowledge and skills to carry out our jobs appropriately and fill any gaps in our knowledge base and skills.
Importance of Learning
Continuous leaning is based on what is often referred to as REFLECTIVE PRACTICE. Reflective Practice involves the learner considering critical incidents from past experiences that become the basis of learning in future. Learning is an important source of motivation and job satisfaction. It helps us to remain updated with the latest developments in our area of interest.
Forms of Learning
Social Learning: As part of social learning, people learn new behavior by watching people in social situations and then imitating or modeling their behavior after that of the other person. People imitate parents, friends, teachers, heroes etc etc because they can identify with them. Social learning provides guidelines for behavoir.
Forms of Learning
Cognitive Learning: IIt involves selective interpretation of perceptual data organized into new patterns of thoughts and relationship. This view of learning focuses on what happens within the individual: motives, feelings, attitudes, memory, and cognition ( thought). Sensory mechanism has the key role in this regards, which is observation based. EXAMPLE, we suddenly got an idea and sayaaahhhaaso a sudden discovery of answer to the problem may change our feelings. Human beings are capable of re-arranging thought patterns into new configuration.
Changing our own Attitudes
The Process of Cognitive Dissonance: Suppose you receive two job offers, you select one out of them, so your attitude towards the job you selected will become more positive and your attitude towards the rejected job will become more negative. WHY DOES THIS OCCUR? The answer lies in the process called Cognitive Dissonance. In most cases people dislike inconsistencies. When we say one thing and do another, e.g, we claim we like job A but select job B or we want good health but also enjoy smooking, the unpleasent state known as cognitive arises.
Changing our own Attitudes
We feel un-easy with inconsistencies, believe our various attitude, and are motivated to change our attitude to resolve this dissonance(a lack of agreement between ideas, opinions, or facts). So to justify your decision and to avoid cognitive dissonance, you simply change the way you feel, bringing your attitude in line with your feelings. Specifically, you adopt a more positive attitude towards the task/job you selected and a less positive attitude towards the task/job you rejected. In short you must bring your behavior and attitude in one line, and you must ignore the situation in which your behavior will dissonant with your attitude
Changing Others Attitudes
There are situations in which we purposely attempt to change others attitude. In particular, we may be interested in improving peoples work-related attitudes, because their negative attitude may be associated with un-desirable situations, e.g., high rate of absenteeism and turnover. We often use the concept of Persuasion which means The process in which a target person is given a message in which the information presented is designed to change attitude.
Barriers to Learning

Individual: A person personality may be a barrier to learning. Such people dislike unfamiliar situations and do not like to take risks at all. They feel comfortable with current situation. Teams & Groups: In the formative stage of the developments of group norms, certain group may decide not to be open to any learning and development process. They may decide to stick on to old methods and techniques of leaning which have been successful and effective in the past.
Barriers to Learning

Organizations: In some organizations, there may be a culture of defensiveness, which discourages people from looking at situations in a new light or from trying out new ideas. Learning opportunities become very restrictive in such types of organizations.
Organizational Behavior Framework
The Environment Individual Processes Inter-personal & Group Processes Organizational Processes Change Processes
The Environment: .When the organization came to know that the environment in which they are working and competing has suddenly been changed, so the policy makers will surely demand for radical changes in both the content and processes to formulate the winning strategy for tomorrow.

Individual Processes: .Personality .Perception .Values & Attitudes .Learning .Work motivation .Work Stress Every persons physiological system is composed of other sub-system like digestive, nervous, circulatory and reproductive, as well as psychological system composed of sub-system like attitudes, perceptions, learning capabilities, personality, needs, feelings and values. Individual behavior is the foundation of organizational behavior. So we have to know the individual behavior
Inter-personal & Group Processes: .Dynamic with Teams
.Dynamics Between Teams .Leadership .Interpersonal communication .Leadership and Negotiation :::>Being inherently social people generally don not like to work alone. Almost all our time is spent interacting with each others. We are born into a family group, worships in a group, play in a group and so on. For these reasons and because many managers spend more than twothird of their working days in meetings-skills in group dynamics are vital to all managers and employees.>>>>PLZ SEE NEXT SLIDE

Inter-personal & Group Processes: Many organizational goals ca be achieved by interacting with others. Being an effective team member requires an understanding of the dynamics within and between groups. Team members must be skillful in eliminating barriers to achieving their goals, solving problems, maintaining productive interaction among team members etc etc. Organizations also need leaders who can integrate employees and organizational goals. How employees communicate with peers, superiors, and other s ca help make them effective team members or lead to low morale and lack of commitment
Organizational Processes:
.Organizational Culture .Power and Political Behavior .Job Design .Organizational Design .Decision Making
:::::>Individuals enter the organizations to work, earn money and pursue career goals. They do so through organizations culture, that is.which policies, practices, norms are important in the organization and how things really work in the organization. Newcomers have to understand the organizations culture in order to be accepted and become productive. Employees and mangers use power to accomplish their goals and to strengthen their positions. A person success or failure in using or reacting to power is largely determined by understanding power, knowing how and when to use power and be able to predicts its probable effects on others. Job design & organizational design help us to understand the way the jobs have been designed and the features and shape of the organization. Decision making is one of the important activities to be performed by managers and requires expertise.
Change Processes:
.Nature of Planned Organizational Change .Approach to Planned Organizational Change ::::> The management of change involves adapting an organization to the demands of the environment and modifying the actual behavior of employees. If the employees do not change their behavior, the organization can not change. four basic strategies for achieving change are: 1. People approaches: Using behavioral science techniques to involve employees in diagnosing organizational problems and planning for correcting them. 2. Cultural approaches: changing the shared beliefs, values, expectations, and norms. 3. Technological approaches: Changing the methods by which work is accomplished. 4. Design approaches: Re-arranging organizational authority, responsibility and decision making.
Negotiations
Negotiation: It is a process by which two or more

parties, each with its own goals, co-ordinate areas of interest through concession and compromise to reach an agreement and take joint decisions about areas of common interest in a situation in which neither side has nor wants to use complete power. Managers have to negotiate salaries for incoming employees, deals with supervisors, bargain over budgets, work out differences with associations and resolve conflicts with subordinates.
Negotiations
1.
Strategies for Negotiations:

Distributive Bargaining: It operates under a zero-sum game, that is, the gain made by one person is the loss incurred by the other person. Integrative Bargaining: It relies on a Win-Win situation. Both the parties involved in the process of negotiation jointly look at the problem, try to search for alternatives and try to evaluate them and reach a mutually acceptable decision or solution for both parties
2.
Communication
Communication:
It is the process of transmission of a message and understanding of information between two or more people, it involves at least two parties---a sender and a receiver.
Communication
1)
Components/Process of Communication:
Ideation: Ideation involves a persons decision to communicate and draft the nature and content of the intended message based on the persons reasons for communicating. Message: The actual information that needs to be sent across the receiver. Encoding: It involves converting an intended message into a transmittable form, such as computer code etc Channel: Any medium capable of transmitting a message, like phone lines, mail system etc
2) 3)
4)
5)
6)
a message to derive meaning from it. Like it should be loud enough, viewable by software etc Feedback: the process of reassuring that the message has reached the intended person.
Decoding: The process of interpreting
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Organizational Behavior

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

What is Organizational Behaviour?

Why to study Organizational Behaviour

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Why to study Organizational Behaviour

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Challenges and Opportunities for Organizational Behaviour

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

The Curiosity, Activity Motives The Affection Motive

Adams' equity theory.

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Adams' equity theory.

Adams' equity theory.

Equity dependent on comparing own ratio of input/output with ratios of 'referent'

Outputs are typically all financial rewards - pay, salary,

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

ERG Theory of Motivation

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

ERG Theory of Motivation

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Esteem Needs (SELF RESPECT & ACCEPTANCE)

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Maslow's Motivation Theory

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Coercive power is associated with people who are in a position to

Expert power comes from a persons expertise . This is commonly a

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Legitimate power comes from the position a person

Referent Power. Reward Power is based upon a persons ability to

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Stress in the workplace

Nawab Ali, KIHE, AFGHANISTAN

Stress in the workplace

Stress in the workplace