ASTR 3520 Observations & Instrumentation II: Spectroscopy

Lecture 1 Introduction

Overview
John Bally C323A Duane 492 5786 john.bally@colorado.edu bally@casa.colorado.edu

Office hours: Th after class (2:00 PM) Wed (2:00 PM) Adam Ginsburg C329 Duane 303 667 3805 adam.ginsburg@colorado.edu Office Hours: Mon, Tues 11:00 AM or by appointment Student & Teacher Introductions:

Organization
Review course structure, content, and Syllabus Observing Projects: Stellar, nebular spectroscopy, semester projects, labs, homework. Apache Point Observatory Field Trip: - 5 - 6 days/ 4 - 5 nights - Covered by Course Fees - VLA, NSO, APO - Last week of Oct. (depends on TAC) Observing Proposals for Semester project due end of Sept. 24 Observing Groups 5 groups / 3 to 4 each. - Each group must have at last 1 experienced observer

Start spectrograph overview (once-over lightly)

Spectroscopy: Astronomy => Astrophysics

Light as a wave phenomenon: = c Geometrical optics => wave optics Diffraction ~/D Interference: n = D sin n = 1,2,3, Deep insights into the nature of atoms, molecules: Discrete wavelengths => Discrete energy levels Electrons stable only in certain orbits. Interference of electron waves! = h / p = h / mv :de Broglie waves

All matter has wave-like behavior on sufficiently small scale!

Spectrograph
Focal Plane collimator camera

detector

Dispersing element
Slit Telescope Spectrograph

SBO Spectrograph overview

Slit & Decker: Restrict incoming light Spatial direction vs. Spectral direction Collimator & Camera: Transfer image of slit onto detector. Grating: Disperse light: dispersion => spectral resolution What determines spectral resolution & coverage? - Slit-width - Grating properties: Ngroves , order number - Camera / collimator magnification (focal length ratio) - Detector pixel size and number of pixels.

Types of Spectroscopy
Electromagnetic Waves: Emission, absorption Visual, near-IR., FIR, Radio, UV/X-ray, gamma-ray - Solids, liquids, gasses, plasmas - Emission, absorption - Spectral line, molecular bands, continua: - Thermal (~LTE, blackbody, grey-body): - Non-thermal (masers, synchrotron, ) - Electronic, vibrational, rotational transitions. - Effects of B (Zeeman), E ( Stark), motion (Doppler), pressure (collisions), natural life-time (line widths) - Radiative Transfer (optical depth) Other types (not covered in this course): NMR Raman Phosprescence / Fluorecence Astro-particle

Review of Some Basics

c = x Angular resolution: = 1.22 / D radians 206,265 in a radian E = h F = L / 4 p d2 AZ, El, RA, Dec, Ecliptic, Galactic Siderial time, Hour Angle G = 6.67 x 10-8 (c.g.s) c = 3 x 1010 cm/sec, k = 1.38 x 10-16 h = 6.626 x 10-27 mH ~ mproton = 1.67 x 10-24 grams me = 0.91 x 10-27 grams eV = 1.602 x 10-12 erg Luminosity of Sun = 4 x 1033 erg/sec Mass of the Sun = 2 x 1033 grams

The Physics of EM Radiation Light: ,

= c = 2.998 x 1010 cm/s (in vacuum) E = h Photon energy (erg) 1 erg sec-1 = 10-7 Watt h = 6.626 x 10-27 (c.g.s) 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-12 erg p = E / c = h / Photon momentum = h / p = h / mv deBroglie wavelength Planck Function: B(T) Emission, absorption, continua Discrete energy levels: Hydrogen

Refraction: Snells Law:

n1 sin(d1) = n2 sin(d2) d1 n1

n1 = refractive index in region 1 n2 = refractive index in region 2 n = c / v = vacuum /medium d2

n2

Basic Lens formulae:

Basic Mirror formulae:

Diffraction:
Light spreads as In the `far field given by =/d L = d2 /

2 slit interference Constructive Destructive

2 slit interference

Anti-reflection coating

Multi-layer interference filter:

Diffraction grating:

Fermats Principle: d(optical path length) = 0 Diffraction grating:

order #

wavelength

groove spacing incidence angle

diffraction angle

CCD Imaging Review

Review CCD basics - How CCDs work - CCD properties Dark, flat, and bias frames Image-scales - focal length, pixel-scale, FOV Review photometry basics - The magnitude system - Calibration - Atmospheric effects; Air mass, color terms

Subaru 8m (Mauna Kea): Suprime Prime Focus CCD Mosaic 8192 x 8192 pixels using SITe chips (15 mm pixels)

Typical Raw image With a CCD

Cosmic rays
Bad pixels stars

CCDs (Charge-Coupled Device)

Ee = h - E0 Properties - Quantum efficiency (QE): => 90% - Gain: G = e- /ADU - Dark current: 1 e- / hr to 103e- /sec thermal emission: => Cool to 20 to 150 C - Read Noise: amplifier read-out uncertainty 3 e- to 100 e- per read - Spatial uniformity: Bad pixels, columns: ~ << 1% gain & QE variations

CCDs
Properties - Cosmic Rays: 5 to > 103 e- produced by each charged particle usually effects 1 or few pixels. non-gaussian charge distribution (different from stellar image or PSF) - Well depth: 5 x 104 to 106 e- Pixel size: 6 mm to 30 mm - Array size: 512 x 512 to 4096 x 4096

Dark current: => cooling

MOSAIC CCD On KPNO 0.9m

Vacuum Dewar LN2 (77K)

Controller Filters & slider

Charge Transfer
0 5 10

10 0 5

5 10 0

Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs)

Output amplifier

Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs)

Output amplifier

Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs)

Read

Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs)

Read

CCD Corrections/Calibrations
Read noise: bias frames - 0 second exposure Dark frames: - Same duration as science exposure with shutter closed Flat fields: - Dome flats - Twilight flats - Super-sky flats Standard stars - At several air-masses z A = sec (z) = 1 / cos(z)

CCD Corrections/Calibrations
Types of image combinations: IRAF task: imarith image1 (+,-,*,/) image2 output imcombine @list_in output - Average: 1/N S I(n) - Mode: Most common data value - Median: Value in middle of range good for rejection of outliers (e.g CRs) Combine (median) - bias frames - flat frames 3,5,7,.. An odd #

CCD Corrections/Calibrations
Reduction:

I(raw)
I(reduced) =

- median(bias)

norm [median(Flat bias)]

Note: Bias can be a Dark if hot pixels /or dark current is large

Flat Field Example

star
Hot pixels cosmic ray

star Bias or dark level cosmic ray

Raw science frame

star

star

Dark subtracted frame

Flat Field Example

star
cosmic ray

star

cosmic ray

Flat frame

Flat Field Example

cosmic ray

Flat frame

Normalized, dark subtracted, median of > 3 flat frames

cosmic ray

Flat Field Example

star

Science frame
1

Normalized flat frame

star star

Reduced science frame

Photometry Basics:
Vega magnitudes:

m() = -2.5 log [F() / FVega()]

F() = Counts on source FVega() = Counts on Vega

z A = sec (z) = 1 / cos(z)

Type of Spectra
Continuum: - Blackbody: B(T) - free-free, free-bound - Non-thermal: Synchrotron radiation - Compton scattering Line & Band E dipole, B diplole, E quadrupole fine structure, hyperfine structure - electronic transitions - vibrational transitions - rotational transition

Types of Spectra:

Hot, Opaque media Nebulae

Stars

The Planck Function: Black-body radiation

(erg s-1 cm-2 Hz-1 2 p sr-1) Wien: B(,T) = (2 ph3 / c2) e-h/kT Rayleigh-Jeans: B(,T) = 2kT/2

The Planck Function: Black-body radiation

Wien

Rayleigh-Jeans

Spectrum of Hydrogen (& H-like ions)

Ionization (n to infinity): E = 13.6 eV Transitions: E = h = Eu El b g

b Balmer

= R [ 1/nl2 1 /nu2] R = 3.288 x 1015 Hz

Ionization at E = 13.6 eV or less than = 912 Angstroms

Lyman

Bohr model: Allowed orbits Coulomb Force:

mvr = nh /2p

Ze2 / r2 = mv2/r Thus, (eliminate v)

r = Ze2 / mv2 = n2h2 / 4 p2Ze2 m Energy E = - (1/2) Ze2 / r = - 2 p2 Z2e4m/ n2h2

Adam Block: 16 Meade + SBIG ST10E + AO7

The Orion Nebula (M42)

Outline & Goals: Tues, 18 Sept

Summary of Kitt Peak Run & Heildelberg
Review Spectrum of Hydrogen
Spectroscopic `terms & terminology (Ch 2, 3; HW #2) Review Transitions (Ch 3): Einstein A, B. Collisional and radiative excitation Spectral line formation & Radiative Transfer basics

Bohr model: Allowed orbits Coulomb Force:

mvr = nh /2p

Ze2 / r2 = mv2/r Thus, r = Ze2 / mv2 = n2h2 / 4 p2Ze2 m Energy E = - (1/2) Ze2 / r = - 2 p2 Z2e4m/ n2h2

Spectrum of Hydrogen (& H-like ions)

Ionization (n to infinity): E = 13.6 eV Transitions: E = h = Eu El b g

b Balmer

= R [ 1/nl2 1 /nu2] R = 3.288 x 1015 Hz

Ionization at E = 13.6 eV or less than = 912 Angstroms

Lyman

Ionization cross-section or hydrogen 13.6 eV = 912 Angstroms 10-18 Lyman lines

-3

Balmer lines

Wavelength (1 / photon energy)

Atomic Structure
Refinements to Bohr: Elliptical e-orbits
Integral of P in r and =lh l = 0,1,2, ,n-1

Relativistic effects => l makes small correction to E-levels Space quantization: Orientation of orbits m Electron spin Pauli: No 2 e- in same state.

Atomic Structure
Atomic quantum numbers: n, l, m, s - completely specify state, E = 1, 2, 3, 4 . = K L M N . = 2 8 . = 0 1 2 3 4 . s p d f g . Selection rules: n shell max ne l

Atomic Structure
Refinements to Bohr: n Elliptical e-orbits: k Space quantization: Orientation of orbits w.r.t. magnetic field: m Electron spin: s Pauli: Ferminons: No 2 e- in same state: [n,k,m,s] Shroedinger Wave function: n => principle quantum number (radial) l => orbital angular momentum 0, 1, n m => magnetic sublevels (degenerate if B=0) s => electron spid +/- 1/2

Atomic Structure
Multi-electron atoms/ions Atomic quantum numbers: s = +/- 1/2
n, l, m, s - completely specify state, E l = 0, 1, , (n-1) m = 0, +/- 1, +/- 2, , +/- l n = 1, 2, 3, 4 . shell = K L M N .
l =
m =

0
0

0, 1

0,1,2

0,1,2,3
0;-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3

0; -1,0,1 0;-2,-1,0,1,2

max ne = max l =

2+6 = 8

2+8+10 = 20

(s = +/- 1/2)

0 1 s s,p Selection rules: Dl = +/- 1

2 s,p,d

3 4 s,p,d,e

n 1
2

3
4

 Hydrogen Ha fine structure Review Transitions (Ch 3): Einstein A, B. Collisional and radiative excitation Spectral line formation & Radiative Transfer basics

Hydrogen energy levels showing allowed transitions

Hydrogen energy levels showing fine structure

2s+1

Fine structure const.:

3d 2D5/2 3d 2D3/2

n=3
3s 2S1/2

3p 2Po

a = e2/ hc = 1/137

3/2

3p 2Po1/2

n=2
2s 2S
1/2

Ha
2p 2Po3/2 2p 2Po1/2

J=L+S

Fine structure: dE / E ~ a4 ~ 5x10-5 eV Spin / orbit (l * s) Hyperfine structure: dE ~ 6x10-6 eV

n=1
1s 2S1/2

Lya
l=0 S l=1 P l=2 D

Selection Rules: Dl = 0, +/-1 Dj = 0, +/-1 even <=> odd L = [l(l+1)]1/2 h/2p S = [s(s+1)]1/2 h/2p J = [J(J+1)]1/2 h/2p

Einstein A & B coefficients: radiative processes

u Aul Bul Blu l Aul - Spontaneous decay Bul - Stimulated decay (prop to Flux)

Blu - Absrorption (prop to Flux)

Ionization & Excitation

Radiation: Rr = s Irad
s = cross section

Collisions:

Rc = n s <vthermal>
Vthermal ~ (3 kT / 2 m)1/2

Aul, Bul Blu

Cul

Clu

Rate Equations:

Spectral Line Formation & Radiative Transfer

Guidelines for 24 spectroscopy Simple Models for Spectrum Formation
emission nebulae absorption line features continuum processes

Theory of Spectrum Formation

optically thin and optically thick spectra stellar spectra

Emission Nebulae
Atoms in nebulae are excited by:
Incident photons Collisions (high temperature or density)

Excited atoms decay, emitting a photon of the characteristic energy (a spectral line) If the atoms are ionized, then the nebula will emit free-bound radiation (i.e. Balmer continuum) as well as spectral lines

Ionization cross-section or hydrogen 13.6 eV = 912 Angstroms 10-18 Lyman lines

-3

Wavelength (1 / photon energy)

Emission Nebula
(photo-excited or photo-ionized)
Star emits continuum optically thin nebula: passes most wavelengths

The only light directed towards the observer is that which has energy equal to the atomic transitions in the nebula: an emission spectrum

- light at energy equal to an atomic transition is absorbed - that light is then reemitted in a random direction (some of it towards the observer) - the nebula may be optically thick at these wavelengths

The Ring Nebula (M57): Planetary Nebula

The Swan Nebula (M17): Emission Nebula

M82 Subaru 8-m (Mauna Kea) Emission line (Ha)

Absorption (dust, NaI, )

continuum emission (stars)

M82 UV (Galex)

M82 21 cm HI (VLA)

M82

M81 NGC3077

M82 Ha

M82 radio (6 cm)

M82 X-ray

Absorption Features
Continuum light is emitted from a star (or other source) Intervening material absorbs light at wavelengths of atomic transitions, exciting those atoms Excited atoms reemit light, but in a random direction (not towards observer)

Absorption Feature:
the observer sees all the wavelengths except those at the atomic transition energy an absorption spectrum

Star emits continuum

- light at energy equal to an atomic transition is absorbed - that light is then reemitted in a random direction

QSO Spectrum with IGM Absorption

What Does an Absorption Spectrum Look Like in an Image?

Quasar 3C273

Deneb

It looks almost identical to the background object! All the absorption is in a few lines, the continuum is relatively unchanged.

Dark or Reflection Nebula: optically thick nebula:

Star emits continuum

-observer cant see background object (i.e. star) because light has been scattered away - dark nebula

dust scatters light

optically thick nebula: -observer sees cloud shining in scattered light (a continuum) -reflection nebula

Continuum Phenomena: Reflection and Dark Nebulae

reflection

Dust scatters incident light Not a line process, scatters continuum

dark

dark

Basic Radiative Transfer Terms

MFP = mean free path (cm) au = opacity (cm-1) cross section per unit volume (aka absorptivity)

MFP = 1/au
tu = optical depth (unitless)

Optical Depth
Optical depth measures the attenuation of light The light we see from an optically thick source was emitted at t approximately 1

tu=1at s=MFP

Radiative Transfer
T1 t1 >> 1 T2 t2 What does the observer see? -assume that the background cloud is opaque (t1 >> 1) -assume both clouds are uniform

F (t ) = B (T1 )e t B (T2 )(1 e t )

This equation has two simple limits

 Optically Thin (tu << 1)

one or fewer scatterings through the cloud on average

F (t ) = B (T1 )[1 t ] t B (T2 )

contribution from background cloud
contribution from foreground cloud

Optically Thick (tu >> 1)

many scatterings through the cloud

F (t ) = B (T2 )
since the foreground cloud is optically thick, all the contribution is from that cloud

Stellar Spectra:
The spectrum of a star forms in its atmosphere The temperature in the atmosphere is stratified The emission at any temperature is a blackbody (for an optically thick source) The opacity is a function of wavelength

 At each wavelength, t=1 corresponds to a different depth in the atmosphere and thus a different temperature The opacity in a line is much higher than in a continuum In a line, we see to a very shallow depth in the atmosphere

The Solar Spectrum (from Kitt Peaks McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope): 2960 13000 angstroms

Based upon the previous image, does temperature in the Sun increase or decrease with height in the atmosphere?
Temperature decreases with height because the lines (which are formed higher up) are darker than the continuum and thus are emitted from a cooler region. This allows us to probe the temperature of the sun as a function of depth.

Solar Spectrum Trace:

notice the different linewidths in different lines and the strong Calcium H & K lines

Ca K

Ca H

Solar Limb Darkening

Sun is brighter in center than at edges. Why?

Solar Limb Darkening

At edge you only see down to a shallower depth (lower temperature) at t~1 At center you see down to a certain depth at t~1

Terminology
Surface brightness is synonymous with temperature
The continuum has a TB of 5,000K The line has a TB of 10,000K

Terminology: Radio Astronomy

Radio astronomers often plot spectra as TB vs
TB is a physical measurement but only for thermal processes (that are optically thick)

Why is this terminology most appropriate for radio astronomy?

radio astronomy is well into the R-J tail

Terminology: Radio Astronomy

The CMB Spectrum

Summary & Goals: Oct 4

Discuss observing proposals
What we covered: Review EM basics, atomic structure basics Intro to gratings & spectrographs: Grating equation Black-bodies. Fluxes, exposure time estimation The H atom & its spectrum Einstein A & B coefficients; radiative & collision rates Radiative transfer & spectral line formation To be covered by Field Trip: Saha equation: ionization of atoms into successive stages of ionization Stellar classification basics Nebula ionization & excitation: the roles of UV Spectrograph design: optics, matching R, pixels, and seeing Radio astronomy

Ionization Balance: (Saha formula)

Each element has an ionization potential for each every electron: Roman numeral is number of electrons lost + 1 Netural H = HI Ionized H = HII Molecular H = H2 HI 13.6 eV HeI 24.58 eV, HeII 54.416 eV CI - 11.26 eV, CII 25.14 eV, CIII 47.89 eV, CIV 64.49 eV, CV 392 eV, CVI 490 eV OI 13.6 eV, OII 35.11 eV, OIII 54.9 eV Ca XXI 5,469 eV

Ionization stage I II III IV V

Relative abundance

Temperature

Saha Formula

Partition function (# of states) Ionization potential Electron density Next ionization stage density Previous ionization stage density

Stellar Spectra: Temperature, Ionization state

Dominant features in spectra of stars

Ionization Balance: Ionized nebulae HII regions, planetary nebulae: UV Supernova remnants: shocks
Ionization produced by: - UV to X-ray radiation fields: stars, white dwarves, neutron stars, accreting WDs, NS, and black holes - Collisions: Shock heated gas Recombinations: Electrons re-combine with ions Stromgren (photo-ionization equilibrium): HII regions Q = (4 p/3) r3 ne2 aB Q = Lyman continuum luminosity (~1049 photons/sec for O7 star) aB = 2.6 x 10-13 cm3 /sec (Recombination coeff. for H at 10,000 K)

Thors helmet: NGC 2359

HD 56925

S106 star forming region in Cygnus (Subaru telescope)

Proto-planetary & Planetary Nebulae

Orion A: - Outflows up to 30 pc long !

M42

HH 131

HH34
HH 1/2

YSOs near massive stars: UV photo-ablation of disks irradiated jets

d253-535 in M43

HH46/47

HH 46/47

HST 1997 - 1994

HH 46/47

HST 1997 - 1994

Stromgren radius of an HII region:

Lyman continuum luminosity of O, B stars: O3: L(LyC) = 1.0 x 1050 photons s-1 T = 60,000 K O5: L(LyC) = 4.7 x 1049 photons s-1 T = 48,000 K O7: L(LyC) = 6.7 x 1048 photons s-1 T = 35,000 K O9: L(LyC) = 1.7 x 1048 photons s-1 T = 32,000 K B0: L(LyC) = 4.7 x 1047 photons s-1 T = 30,000 K B3: L(LyC) = 4.7 x 1045 photons s-1 T = 20,000 K n = 1000, O5 star:
L(Lyc) ~ n2 r3 aB => r ~ [L(LyC) / n2 aB]1/3

5.6 x 1018 (cm)

1.8 pc

Photo-ionization equilibrium (in-class exercise)

Consider an O7 star that emits 1049 Lyman continuum photons per second which is embedded in a uniform density cloud with n(H) = 1 cm-3. - What is the Stromgren radius?
- What is the mass that is ionized?

- How would these answers change if n(H) = 104 cm-3

HII (ionized nebulae) cooled and traced by trace elements & ions

Many forbidden transitions have DE ~ 2 eV (visible) long life-times, low decay rates (Einstein A coefficients)
Collision rate: Rcoll = n<sv> n ~ 102 cm-3

s~1015cm2 (for atoms. Depends on v for ions)

v ~ (kT / mm)1/2 (sound speed ~ 10 km/s for H at 10,000 K) R ~ 10-7 sec-1 (1 collision every 107 sec) Collision rate ~ decay rate => each ion can radiate Thousands of times before recombining => bright line

Some common transitions in ionized nebulae: [SII] [NII] Ha [OI] [OIII] [OII] 6717/6731 A (density tracer) 6748/6784 A 6563 A 6300/6363 A 5007 A 3729/3726 A

Long-slit:

Spectrum of a planetary nebula

Slitless: No entrance aperture

Planetary nebula

M57 (Ring nebula)

Objective prism (slitless) spectra:

Slitless: No entrance aperture

Slitless: No entrance aperture

Slitless: No entrance aperture

Why `forbidden emission lines are bright 13.6 eV Ha 9.2 eV

-3

~2 eV Photo-ionization => recombination Collisional Excitation <E >~3/2 kT = 1.3 eV @104 K

Measuring nebular density using [SII] lines 1.4 [S II] I(6717/6731)

1.0

0.6

101

102

103 104 Density (cm-3)

O star embedded in semi-infinite wall near edge:

Q = L(LC) = 1050 g s-1

n(H)

O star next to an infinite wall of hydrogen:

Q = L(LC) = 1050 g s-1

Three problems:
Star with a wind spherical cloud star in a pipe

Ionization Balance: (Saha formula)

Each element has an ionization potential for each every electron: Roman numeral is number of electrons lost + 1 Netural H = HI Ionized H = HII Molecular H = H2 HI 13.6 eV HeI 24.58 eV, HeII 54.416 eV CI - 11.26 eV, CII 25.14 eV, CIII 47.89 eV, CIV 64.49 eV, CV 392 eV, CVI 490 eV OI 13.6 eV, OII 35.11 eV, OIII 54.9 eV Ca XXI 5,469 eV

Ionization stage I II III IV V

Relative abundance

Temperature

Saha Formula

Partition function (# of states) Ionization potential Electron density Next ionization stage density Previous ionization stage density

Stellar Spectra: Temperature, Ionization state

Dominant features in spectra of stars

Wolf-Rayet stars: > 60 Solar mass, post-main sequence

WR 124

2006 APO Field Trip What to Bring: - Pack light (like carry-on on an airplane) - Jacket, hat, gloves (prepare for cold near freezing) - Flashlight - Cash for food (supermarket + stops during drive) - Personal items Where: - Meet at Circle at NW corner of Benson @ 9:00 AM Monday 30 Oct (be early!) - Need two volunteers with sleeping bags for Mon night (Socorro) - Return Friday (3 Nov) in the evening.

2006 APO Field Trip Itinerary: - Monday: Drive from Boulder to Socorro, NM (9 - 10 hrs) - Tuesday: Meet Debra Shepherd at NRAO ~ 8:30 AM Drive to VLA site (1 hr) Tour VLA Return to Socorro - have lunch Drive to APO (4 hrs) & shop for food Settle in to dorm rooms / houses Observe till 1:00 AM (If we are late, remote observers will operate remotely from Boulder) - Wed: PM tour of NSO (?) + cook dinner Observe all night - Thurs: Sleep during day / observe first half - Friday: Rise at 8:00 AM, drive back (10 - 11 hrs)

Project / Observing Summary Itinerary: Tues (first half)

M17 LBV, Ceph A DIS new high red Hyades WDs (Audrey, Ward, Nate) Wed (whole night) Comet Swan (Corey, Julia, Tedd) Eyepiece on Moon etc. Metallicity QSO outflow (Max) HL/XZ Tau (Alexi, Courtney, Carlee, Beau) DIS new high red / eyepiece / DIS / SpiCam / eyepiece (dawn): Orion, NGC1068, Saturn thurs (first half) APOLLO laser finish projects as needed.

Atacama Large Millimeter Array: Sajnantor Chile, ~ 64 12 meter dishes Baselines: 150 meter to 10 km

ALMA site: Sajnantor Chile,

Elevation ~ 5,000 meters!