ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

(BEL10103) LECTURE #06

Oleh:
Dr. Soon Chin Fhong
Electronic Engineering Department
Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
2
Chapter 6:
FIRST-ORDER
CIRCUITS


Lecture Contents
Introduction
The source-free RL circuit
The source-free RC circuit
Singularity Functions
4
Introduction to First Order
RL & RC Circuits

5
6.1 First order circuits
First order circuits are electrical circuits that
contain a single energy storage element (either a
capacitor or an inductor).

The number of capacitors and inductors in a
circuit determine the differential order of the
equation that represents the network.

Hence a first order differential equation is
required to solve a circuit containing a single
energy storage element.


6
The total response of a first order circuit
is made up of two parts; the transient
response and the steady state response.
Total Response


Transient Response + Steady State Response
7
Transient response
- is the initial response of the circuit to a
change at its input. This response decays
exponentially, and will eventually disappear.

Steady state response
- is the response of the circuit after all
conditions have stabilized.
8
6.2 The source-free RC circuit
A source-free RC circuit
occurs when its dc
source is suddenly
disconnected.

The energy already
stored in the capacitor is
released to the resistors.



9
Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can
assume that at time t = 0, the initial voltage is:
(0) = V
0
(6.1)

with the corresponding value of the energy stored as

w(0) = (6.2)
2
0
2
1
CV
10
dt
dv
C
R
v
dt
dv
C
R
v
dt
dv
RC
v
Applying KCL at the top
node of the circuit
i
C
+ i
R
= 0 (6.3)

By definition, i
C
= and i
R
= .
Thus

+ = 0 (6.4a)

or + = 0 (6.4b)
11
This is a first-order differential equation, since only
the first derivative of is involved. To solve it, we
rearrange the terms as



Integrating both sides, we get



where ln A is the integration constant

(6.6)
dt
RC v
dv 1
=
A
RC
t
v ln ln + =
RC
t
A
v
= ln
12
Taking powers of e produces


But from the initial conditions,
(0) = A = V
0
. Hence,

(6.7)
RC
t
e A t v

= ) (
RC
t
e V t v

=
0
) (
This shows that the voltage response of the RC
circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage.
13
Since the response is due to the initial energy
stored and the physical characteristics of the
circuit and not due to some external voltage or
current source, it is called the natural response
of the circuit.
The voltage response
of the RC circuit
Natural response: the
behavior (in terms of
voltages and currents) of
the circuit itself,
with no external sources of
excitation.
14
e
1
t
t
RC
e V
t
0
1
0

e V
The time constant, , of a circuit is the time
required for the response to decay by a factor of
or 36.8 % of its initial value.

This implies that at t = , Eq. (6.7) becomes

= = 0.368 V
0

or = RC (6.8)
t
15
In terms of the time constant, Eq. (6.7) can be
written as



The capacitor is fully discharged (or charged)
after five time constants.
(*refer to Table 7.1 page 252,text book)

In other words, it takes 5 for the circuit to
reach its final state or steady state when no
changes take place with time.
= ) (t v
t
t
e V

0
(6.9)
t
16
Graphical determination of the time constant
t from the response curve.
17
With the voltage in Eq. (6.9), we can find the
current i
R
(t),

(6.10)

The power dissipated in the resistor is


(6.11)

t
t
e
R
V
R
t v
t i
R

= =
0
) (
) (
t
t
e
R
V
i v t p
R
2
2
) (
0

= =
18
The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t
is







Notice that as t , , which is the
same as , the energy initially stored in the
capacitor. The energy that was initially stored in
the capacitor is eventually dissipated in the
resistor.
} }

= =
t t
R
dt
t
e
R
V
dt p t w
0 0
0
2
2
) (
t
RC
0 0
0
),
2
1 (
2
2
1
2
2
2
=
(6.12)

=
t
t t
t
t
e CV
t
e
R
V
t
) (
R
w
2
0
2
1
CV
) 0 (
C
w
19
Example 1 :
In figure below, let
C
(0) = 15 V. Find
C
,

X
, and i
X
for t > 0.
20
A e
V e e v
V e v v V
t
t t
t
C
5 . 2
x
x
5 . 2 5 . 2
x
x
5 . 2
4 . 0
t
-
t
-
75 . 0
12
v
i
Finally,
9 ) 15 ( 6 . 0
8 12
12
v
so division; voltage use can we , get v To
15 , e v(0)e v
Thus,
0.4s 4(0.1) ReqC
is, constant Time
4
5 20
5 20
Req

= =
= =
+
=
= = = =
= = =
=
+

=
t
t
0.1 F
8
12 5
i
X

X
_
+
_
+
V
C
_
+
V
C
0.1 F
R
eq

#

#

#
21
6.3 The source-free RL circuit
To determine the circuit response, we will
assume the current i(t) through the inductor.
22
At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has
an initial current I
0
, or
i (0) = I
0
(6.13)

with the corresponding energy stored in
the inductor as

w (0) = (6.14)
2
0
2
1
I L
23
Applying KVL around the loop in the figure
above,


L
+
R
= 0 (6.15)


But
L
= and
R
= iR. Thus


+ Ri = 0


or (6.16)
dt
di
L
dt
di
L
0 = + i
L
R
dt
di
24
Rearranging terms and integrating gives





or (6.17)

dt
L
R
i
di
t t i
I
}
=
}
0
) (
0
t
t i
I
L
t R
i
0
) (
0
ln =

0 I ln i(t) ln
0
+ =
L
t R
L
t R
I
t i
=
0
) (
ln

25
Taking the powers of e, we have
(6.18)
L
Rt
e I t i

=
0
) (
Current response
of the RL circuit
26
Therefore, from Eq. (6.18), the time
constant for the RL circuit is
t = (6.19)


Thus Eq. (6.18) may be written as

(6.20)

R
L
t
t
e I t i

=
0
) (
27
With the current in Eq. (6.20), we can find
the voltage across the resistor as

(6.21) R i t v
R
= ) (
t
t
e R I

=
0
The power dissipated in the resistor is

(6.22)
t
t
I i v p
R
2
Re
2
0

= =

28
The energy absorbed by the resistor is

(6.23)

) 1 (
2
1
) (
2
0
2
t
t
e LI t w
R

=
Note that as t , w
R
() ,
which is the same as w
L
(0).
2
0
2
1
LI
29
Example 2 :
The switch in the circuit has been closed
for a long time. At t = 0, the switch is opened.
Calculate i(t) for t > 0.

t = 0
1 2
4 2
12 16 40 V 2 H
30
6.4 Singularity Functions
Singularity functions (also called switching
functions) are very useful in circuit analysis.

They serve as good approximations to the
switching signals that arise in circuits with
switching operations.

The most widely used singularity functions in
circuit analysis are the unit step and impulse
(or delta) functions.
31
The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values
of t and 1 for positive values of t.
In mathematical terms,

u(t) = (6.23)

<
>
0 , 0
0 , 1
t
t
Fig.1:The unit step function
t
u(t)
1
32
If the abrupt change occurs at t = t
0
(where t
0
>0)
instead of t = 0, the unit step functions becomes;


u(t - t
0
) = (6.24)

<
>
0
t t , 0
0
t t , 1
Fig.2 :The unit step function
t
u(t - t
0
)
1
t
0
u(t) is delayed by t
0
seconds
33
If the change occurs at t = - t
0
(where t
0
<0)
instead of t=0, the unit step functions becomes;


u(t + t
0
) = (6.25)

<
>
0
t t , 0
0
t t , 1
Fig. 3: The unit step advanced by t
o

t
u(t + t
0
)
1
- t
0
u(t) is advanced by t
0
seconds
0
34
We use the step function to represent an abrupt
change in voltage or current,
eg. changes occurs in the circuits of control
systems and digital computers.

v(t) = (6.26)


v(t) = V
0
u(t t
0
)

If t
0
=0 v(t) = V
0
u(t)

<
>
0
t t , 0
0
t t ,
0
V
35
+
-
a
b
+
-
a
b
t = 0
V
o V
0
u(t)
In Fig. 4 (b), terminals a-b are short-circuited (v=0)
for t<0 and that v=V
0
appears at the terminals for
t>0.
(a) Voltage source of V
0
u(t)
(b) Its equivalent circuit
Figure 4
36
a
b
a
b
t = 0
I
o I
0
u(t)
Similarly, in Fig. 5 (b) terminals a-b are open-
circuited (i=0) for t<0 and that i=I
0
flows for t>0.
(a) Current source of I
0
u(t)
(b) Its equivalent circuit
i
Figure 5
37
The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit
impulse function, ,which we write as
) (t o
0 t
0 t
0 t
0
Undefined
0
) t ( u
dt
d
) t (
>
=
<

= = o
t
0
) (t o
1
Fig. 6:The unit impulse function
(6.27)
38
}
+

=
0
0
1 ) (t o
Unit impulse may be expressed mathematically as
0
1
2
3 -1
-2
) 3 ( 4 t o
) ( 10 t o
) 2 ( 5 + t o
t
Fig. 7: Three impulse function
Strength of impulse function=10
(6.28)
39
0
0 0
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
>
s

=
= =
}

t
t
t
t r
or
t tu dt t u t r
t

Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the
unit ramp function, r(t), we write
1
1
Fig.8: The unit ramp function
r(t)
0
t
The unit ramp function is zero for negative values of t
and has a unit slope for positive values of t
(6.29)
40
For the delayed unit ramp function,
0
0
0
0
0
) (
t t
t t
t t
t t r
>
s

=
t
0
+1
1
Fig. 9: The unit ramp
function delayed by t
0

r(t-t
0
)
0
t
t
0
(6.30)
41
For the advanced unit ramp function,
0
0
0
0
0
) (
t t
t t
t t
t t r
>
s

+
= +
-t
0

1
Fig. 10: The unit ramp
function advanced by t
0
r(t+t
0
)
0
t
-t
0
+1
(6.31)
42
Summary
Three singularity functions (impulse, step and
ramp) are related by differentiation as:


Or by integration as




dt t u t r dt t t u
dt
t dr
t u
dt
t du
t
t t
} }

= =
= =
) ( ) ( , ) ( ) (
) (
) ( ,
) (
) (


o
o
(6.32)
(6.33)
43
6.5 Step Response RC Circuit
When the dc source of an RC circuit is
suddenly applied, the voltage or current
source can be modeled as a step function
and the response is known as a step
response, as in Figure 1.
The step response of a circuit is its behavior
when the excitation is the step function,
which may be a voltage or a current source.

44
Fig. 1: Step response of RC circuit
Initial condition:
v(0-) = v(0+) = V
0

Applying KCL,




or




Where u(t) is the unit-step function
0
) (
=

+
R
t u V v
dt
dv
c
s
) (t u
RC
V v
dt
dv
s

=
v(0
-
) =voltage across
capacitor just before
switching
v(0+) =voltage immediately
after switching
Since the
capacitor
voltage cannot
change
instantaneously
45
The expression of step response of RC circuit is
given as:


*refer text book pg 274

> +
<
=

0 ) (
0
) (
/
0
0
t e V V V
t V
t v
t
s s
t
This is known as the complete
response
or (total response) of the RC
circuit to a sudden
application of a dc voltage
source, assuming
the capacitor is initially charged. Fig. 2: Step response of an RC circuit with
initially charged capacitor
46
If the capacitor is assumed not
charged initially, therefore V
0
= 0,



Which can be written alternatively as:


This is the complete step response of
the RC circuit when the capacitor is
initially uncharged.

>
<
=
t
0 t ) e 1 ( V
0 t 0
) t ( v
/ t
s
) t ( u ) e 1 ( V ) t ( v
/ t
s
t
=
Fig. 3: Step response of an RC circuit with
initially uncharged capacitor
47
The current through the capacitor is obtained
from i(t) = C dv/dt, we get;

for t > 0
) t ( u ) e (
R
V
) t ( i
/ t s t
=
Fig. 3: Step response of an RC circuit with
initially uncharged capacitor current
response
48
Final value
at t ->
Initial value
at t = 0
Source-free
Response
Complete Response = Natural response + Forced Response
(stored energy) (independent source)

= V
0
e
t/
+ V
s
(1e
t/
)

> +
<
=

0 ) (
0
) (
/
0
0
t e V V V
t V
t v
t
s s
t
49
Three steps to find out the step response of an
RC circuit:
1. The initial capacitor voltage, v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage, v() DC voltage
across C.
3. The time constant, t.
t /
)] ( ) 0 ( [ ) ( ) (
t
e v v v t v

+ + =
Therefore, step response form in general is:
Note: This equation applies only to step response, that is when the
input excitation is constant.
50
The end.