SENSORY MECHANISMS AND MOTOR SKILLS

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SENSATION
oconverting energy into a change in the membrane potential of sensory receptors oaction potentials

SENSORY PATHWAYS
Functions
Reception
Detection of stimuli Sensory receptors stimuli detector

Transmit signals to CNS

Transduction
conversion of stimulus energy into a change in the membrane potential of a sensory receptor Receptor potential change in membrane potential

Transmission to action potential to CNS Integration of sensory information

Some are integrated through summation

PERCEPTION
oBrains construction of the stimuli oThe brain distinguishes the stimuli by the area of the brain that receives the action potentials

AMPLIFICATION
Strengthening of stimulus energy

SENSORY ADAPTATION
Decrease in responsiveness to continued stimulation

SENSORY RECEPTORS
o Mechanoreceptors sense physical deformation caused by stimuli (pressure, stretch, motion, sound)
o Dendrites of sensory neurons

o Chemoreceptors transmit information about total solute concentration of a solution

oWhen bound to a stimulus molecule, it becomes more or less permeable to solutions

o Electromagnetic receptors detect electromagnetic energy (light, electricity, magnetism)

o Photoreceptors detect light o Infrared receptors detect body heat o Magnetic receptors detect magnetic fields

SENSORY RECEPTORS
Thermoreceptors - respond to heat or cold
Maintain body temperature

Pain receptors nociceptors

Naked dendrites in epidermis

EX. HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM

Mechanoreceptors produce receptor potentials
Detect moving particles and settling particles

Statocysts sensory organ that maintain equilibrium

Statoliths mechanoreceptors that detect movement of granules

IN THE EAR
Three bones in the ear transmit vibrations to cochlea (can distinguish pitch), which then travels to vestibular canal
Bending of hair

Volume amplitude of sound wave Pitch frequency Inner Ear detect equilibrium
Utricle and saccule have otoliths (granules that detect gravity and linear movement) 3 semicircular canals contain fluid & detects angular acceleration

IN THE EAR OF FISHES

Lateral line System
Mechanoreceptors that sense water movement

TASTE AND SMELL YUM

Terrestrial animals
Gustation (taste) tastants Olfocation (smell) odorants

Aquatic animals no distinction Insects Sensilla hair on feet and mouth Humans Taste Buds (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami) through tongue
Olfactory sensory cells neurons that line nasal cavity

VISION
Invertebrates light-detecting organ
Image-forming eyes
Compound eyes insects and crustaceans (have ommatidia thousand light detectors) Single-lens eyes camera-like (iris changes diameter of pupil)

Vertebrates eye detects color and light; brain assembles image

VERTEBRATE EYE
Structure
Sclera white outer layer (includes cornea) Choroid pigmented layer Iris regulates size of pupil Retina contains photoreceptors; where visual information processing begins Lens focuses light on the retina Optic Disk blind spot in retina where optic nerve attaches

Divisions
Anterior aqueous humor (produced by ciliated body) ; watery Posterior vitreous humor; jelly-like

HUMAN EYE PHOTORECEPTORS

Rods light-sensitive
No colors Concentrated around retina Rhodopsin - changes shape when absorbing light.

Cones color sensitive

Not light Concentrated on fovea (center of visual field)

Contain retinal (light-absorbing molecule) bonded to opsin Hyperpolarizes the cell

PHOTOPSINS
3 pigments that detect light of different wave lengths Red Green Blue

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

ALMOST DONE

SARCOMERE
ofunctional unit of muscle oBordered by Z lines

SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL

Filaments overlap between thin and thick filaments
Interaction of myosin and actin (form a cross bridge)

VERTEBRATE SKELETAL MUSCLE

oStriated Muscles oConsists of long fibers
oBundle of Myofibrils
o Myofilaments o Thin 2 strands of actin, 1 strand of regulatory protein o Thick arrays of myosin molecules

oContracts only when stimulated by a motor neuron oTropomyosin protein that blocks binding sites when muscle is at rest oMyosin-binding sites exposed when Ca is released oAcetylcholine causes muscle to produce an action potential (depolarizes it)

Action potentials

Transvers e tubules

Interior of muscle fiber Cross bridge cycle

Sacroplasmic reticulum releases Ca

Binds to troponin complex

Exposes myosin binding sites

2 MECHANISMS THAT THE NERVOUS SYSTEM PRODUCES CONTRACTIONS

1. Number of fibers that contract 2. Rate at which fibers are stimulated

MOTOR NEURONS
Recruitment the more neurons = stronger contractions Tetanus state of smooth & sustained contraction Twitch produced by one motor neuron
Slow-twitch fibers contract slowly
Sustain longer contractions All are oxidative

Fast-twitch fibers contract rapidly

Sustain short contractions Glycolytic or oxidative

TYPES OF SKELETAL SYSTEM

Hydrostatic skeletons (lack hard parts)
Consist of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment In cnidarians, flatworms, annelids (use hydrostatic skeleton for peristalsis) and nematodes

Exoskeleton in arthropods (usually made of chitin) Endoskeleton bones

In sponges, echinoderms and chordates Humans = 200 bones

CHARACTERISTICS
Excitability Contractility Elasticity Extensibility

FUNCTION
Movement Visceral Action Positioning Heat production Electricity (in some fishes)

ORGANIZATION
Sarcolema Sarcoplasm Nuclei Striations Epimysium Perimysium Endomysium

TENDONS
Attachments of muscles to bones Aponeuroses (flattened sheets) Fascia (wrapper)

SUBMICROSCOPICALLY
Mitochondria Sarcoplasmic reticulum Transverse tubules Triad Thick and thin filaments

ORGANIZATION
Red vs White Somatic vs Visceral Voluntary vs Involuntary Smooth vs skeletal vs cardiac

HISTOLOGY
Skeletal
With striations and crossbands Voluntary

Cardiac (Heart)
With striations bvlhfkjhfjkhdfjkh Involuntary

Smooth
No striations bvlfgfghfkjhfjkhdfjkh

Involuntary
Mono-nucleate Visceral Function

Multi-nucleate
Myofibrils Innervated by a branch of single nerve cell

Mono-nucleate
Intercalated Discs Branched

NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
Connection between nervous system and muscle fiber

MUSCLE METABOLISM
Energy from
ATP Creatine phosphate Glycolysis Aerobic cellular respiration

MUSCLE FUNCTION
Importance of Length Color
Red: high myoglobin and vascularization White: reverse of red

Tonic & Twitch Fibers Force: Active and Elastic SO vs FOG vs FG Strength depends on cross sectional area

MUSCLE FUNCTION
Graded force
Excitation: all or none Recruitment Summation Tetanus

Fiber Arrangement: pinnate or parallel Bone Musce Lever Systems

Where muscles are attached matters

MUSCLE MECHANICS
Motor Pattern any repetitive movement caused by nervous system Synergists Antagonists Prime Movers Origin fixed point Insertion area of motion

SOME ACTIONS
Flexion & Extensions Adductors & Abductors Levators and Depressors Protactors and Retractors Supinators and Pronators

MUSCLE HOMOLOGIES
Determined by
Similarity in location In origin and insertion In function Shape In nervous innervation Origin/insertion Action size

BASIS OF NAMING MUSCLES

Direction of fibers Location or position Number of Divisions

MUSCLES IN AQUATIC VERTEBRATES

Lampreys no lateral septum
Myomeres inserted into myosepta No appendicular muscles

Gnathostome fish
Strong axial musculature Myomeres become angled and overlap Hypobranchial muscles open the jaw Appendicular muscles with fins
Dorsal mass- extensors/adductors/levators Ventral mass- flexors, abductors, depressors

Constrictors continuous over the gill area Adductor mandibulae closes the jaws

TETRAPODS
Limb muscles increase and axial musculature decreases Myospeta disappear except in anurans Epaxial muscles decrease in prominence
Neck muscles form layers for flexibility Intervertebrals Longissimus Spinales iliocostales

TETRAPODS
Hypaxial muscles of trunk
Subvertebral group-trunk flexion Rectus abdominus group- supports the viscera Lateral group- three sheet like layers; from which serratus, levator scapulae and rhomboideus evolved
External oblique Internal oblique Transversus abdominus

BRANCHIAL MUSCLES
Involved in feeding and breathing

HYPOBRANCHIAL MUSCLES
Head, neck, and tongue movement

APPENDICULAR MUSCLES
Large for propulsion in tetrapods In fish: for balance and stability

LOCOMOTION
Primary Swimmers Undulatory Secondary Swimmers - Paddles

Terrestrial
Cursorial fast running Saltatorial - hop Scansorial for climbing Fossorial - diggers

Flight
Parachuting Gliding True flight