LECTURE 4

THE CARTOGRAPHIC PROCESS

Cartographic Generalization Concepts

Map production necessarily involves undertaking a number of processes which are collectively described as Cartographic Abstraction. This is the process whereby we transform features of the earth onto a map. This involves far more than mere or simple reduction. It is an Encoding Process in which the final product, the map, will become meaningful to the map user.

Generalization Processes
They are logical steps or processes required to achieve cartographic generalization. They include selection, classification, simplification/exaggeration and symbolization. By these processes, the cartographer attempts to portray only the essentials of an environmental or geographical situation which is defined by the purpose or objective of the map. In the process, we often and usually eliminate the visual complexity of the map by simplifying their outlines through categorizations

SELECTION
The map is necessarily selective since, unlike the photograph, we cannot include all aspects of reality of the world. The first logical requirement of map abstraction therefore is to reduce the complexity of the environment to a manageable number.by using clearly defined guidelines or thresholds The map makers first job is therefore to select the information that will go into the intended map. Selection begins by setting thresholds or cut-off points in terms of information or data to be mapped.

In this first stage the cartographer is guided by questions based on the following: where, when, what.

SCALE SELECTION FACTORS

Purpose of the map Needs of the map user Map content Size of mapped area Maximum font size Level of accuracy required Etc.

Factors in the Selection Process

Purpose/objectives: Since there are various types of maps, decisions made in the selection
process will be guided first by the purpose of the map. The topic and variables to be mapped will be guided by Physical and material aspects of the environment e.g. topography and hydrology, vegetation, rainfall and humidity, etc Non-physical or Human aspects, e.g. Traffic flows, crime and disease

Region to be mapped: The environment we live in is so vast that it is difficult to obtain a precise
overall picture. The factors that will guide us here include location or localities of things to be covered e.g. the whole world or part of it, a continent, country, region or province, district or settlement.

Time frame: This relates to current data e.g. yearly or monthly, depending on the objectives of the
map as well as relevance to the map user. In Ghana the most recent topographical maps are dated 1970 and 1990.

Variables to be mapped: What to include depends on the size or scale of the map; purpose and
available information (e.g. maps for sailors will show cliffs in the sea which ships have to avoid; tourist maps will show routes and tourist attractions.

Choice of scale: How to go about reducing the size of our environment to fit the map frame
becomes a most important decision: should the map look at a few things nearby or a lot of things far away? This consideration addresses one of the concepts in cartography, namely scale. Scale may be defined as the ratio of distances on a map, to the actual distances they represent on the ground.

Restrictions on Choice of Scale

Too large a scale increases the material cost of the map since a large number of information/data will be included. Consequently, too much detail will be covered, resulting in more cartographic work thereby using more time and therefore higher production cost. Too small a scale may result in a crowded or illegible map because too many details have to be compressed. This may also lead to an incorrect elimination of necessary data.

Data Collection Method

Direct field observation using compass, chain or Global Positioning System (GPS)

Sampling & Indirect or secondary methods for gathering socio-economic data from reports, censuses, interviews and questionnaires Remote sensing methods involving the use the camera at various altitudes, platforms and films. (GEOG 307 Remote Sensing and GIS)

Measurement Level
Measurement levels: Qualitative and Quantitative levels. Qualitative mode: the cartographic data and the symbols for representing them are merely descriptive, e.g. the position of a road or river. Quantitative mode : things mapped and the corresponding graphic symbols (points, lines and areas) vary according to numbers or quantities. Inventory Scale Map makers have important choices regarding the strategy used to collect information to be mapped. These are the population and sample methodology. Population inventory: When this choice is made, every element of the distribution is taken into consideration, e.g. every tributary of a river, every city or every small dam Sample inventory: In this case, only a portion of the distribution or population is targeted e.g. only selected tributaries or selected cities in the distribution, or selected small dams Sample methodology: The sample methodology for obtaining the required data may be random, systematic, or stratified Cost: The execution of mapping operations has obvious cost implications which can become a very important factor as it may limit the choice of alternative actions or activities available to the cartographer. As a result, the cartographer is sometimes in dilemma regarding the need to produce quality maps at least cost often demanded by clients or map user.

Perspective or projection
Since maps are the transformation of the spherical earth or parts of it onto a flat medium like a sheet of paper, there is need to understand the basis and characteristics for such a transformation or projections of surfaces e.g. cylinder, cone and plane /azimuth. Perspective of the mapped area may also relate to aerial photographs which may be differentiated as vertical or oblique photographs. A head drawn on the Mollweide projection (top) has been transferred to Mercators projection with (centre) and to the cylindrical equal-area projection with standard parallels at 30 (bottom). Just because the profile looks most natural on Mollweides projection, that projection is not necessarily better. The natural could have been drawn on any projection and then plotted on the others.

Classification
Robinson et. al. (1978) have defined classification as the ordering or

scaling and grouping of data with a view to bring relative order and simplicity out of the complexity of incomprehensible differences, inconsequential differences, or the unmanageable magnitudes of information.
It is a grouping process where information selected for mapping is grouped into a relatively small number of categories in order to have a meaningful map. Map makers generally classify as a means of reducing the complexity of the map information so that, for example, instead of showing individual trees, we can have the following: Forested areas, Non-forested area, Grassland Therefore the map makers first duty in classification is to decide the number of classes, depending on the characteristics of the data.

Classification Criteria/Methods

Point Feature, Line Typification, Aggregation of Areas, and Aggregation of Volumes

Point Feature Methods

Point feature methods may result in collapsing of several elements or features.

This results in obvious loss of dimension of the feature being mapped.

We may use this procedure when we must group or collapse individual elements and specify a typical location for the group
Fig 4.1 Illustrations of collapsing process in generalization.

Line Feature Typification

This method is applied to complex patterns consisting of individual features as shown in Figure 4.2. The process of typification allows us to retain the essence of the pattern on the reduced-scale map.
Figure 4.2 Typification by classification of point, line and area features

Indeed, the same principles can be applied to all categories of maps including flow maps showing volume of air, vehicular movement or traffic during rush hour and off peak hours to work.

Aggregation of Areas
This method results in grouping or coalescing of area units or features. It depends on the size of area units being aggregated and the scale of mapping in relation to level of detail e.g. land use classes (Level I, Level II, Level III,

Aggregation of Volume
This method is generally achieved through:
Use of class limits or intervals as in Choropleth mapping

Number of classes
Depending on how general a viewpoint a cartographer takes of the situation, he can decide to group the data into a number of classes. The choice of few classes for mapping conceals details whilst a large number of to overcrowding of information of the map.

Class limits
In determining the number of classes, the map maker must determine the class limits. A key question to be considered would be what point can one group end and another one begin? This is determined by the cartographers objective assessment and understanding of the data. In an attempt to classify, we can have constant series of class intervals; variable intervals which may be arithmetic or geometric; or even irregular classes as shown in Table 1

Table 1: Class limits.

Constant Series Systematically Unequal Stepped
Arithmetic (5n) Geometric (5n)

Irregular/ Variable

1 20 21 40

15
6 15

15
6 30

1 10 10 15 15 18 18 30

41 60
61 80

16 30
31 50

31 156
157 782

81 100

SIMPLIFICATION & EXAGGERATION MANIPULATIONS

When we undertake cartographic simplification, we determine important characteristics of feature attributes and, in the process, maintain these important features and attributes of the data and eliminate unwanted details. In doing so, we have two main objectives:

We must reduce the amount of information to the map makers ability to portray it legibly at the chosen scale. At this stage, we must be guided by how much information to include on the map
We must maintain as far as possible, the essential geographical characteristics of the mapped phenomenon Cartographers use simplification to eliminate unwanted information. This is done through two major routines i.e. elimination and smoothing. The overall objective in simplification is to avoid overcrowding of information on the map.

Simplification/Manipulation Procedures

Feature elimination (Eliminating unwanted features) Smoothing details out of boundaries

Measurement level reduction

Combining or compacting variables

Elimination routines
As map scales get smaller and smaller, fewer features can be represented. Part of the solution is therefore to select only the features which are necessary to be portrayed.

Cartographers achieve this by eliminating some of it and smoothing (reducing details) of the remaining feature.
Scale of mapping is therefore very important as illustrated in Figure 4.3 (a, b.). Figure 4.3 (a, b,) further shows the effect of scale on point feature elimination.

Figure: Simplification accompanied by scale reduction

Figure: Simplification applied to a constant scale

Simplification manipulation procedure

Simplification manipulation procedure is applicable to points, areas and all other types of features as illustrated in the accompanying figures. Depending on the scale of the map, the amount of detail or convenience desired, some features and very often those smaller than those desired may be eliminated, e.g. small outliers as lakes, bridges, streams as shown in Figures 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6.

Confusion?
To many map users, this procedure may introduce a source of confusion in map information but this is for the convenience of both the map maker and user alike. The procedure could equally be applied to areas by specifying minimum area or size or distance to be eliminated or retained.

Figure: Feature elimination, (Lakes & streams). SCALE

LARGE SCALE MAP LAKES STREAM NETWORK

SMALL SCALE MAP

Figure: Area elimination

Smoothing routines
Instead of eliminating features, cartographers can simplify a map by smoothing features. As is quite evident with linear features, their form may further be simplified by removing detail from the edges as illustrated in Figure 4.7 In digital mapping smoothing may be carried out by use of smoothing operators and surface models such as moving averages and contrast stretching. Other routines for carrying out simplification include measurement level reduction.

Map simplification through line smoothing (Coastline & Woods/Forest)

SCALE

COASTLINE

WOOD

LARGE SCALE MAP

SMALL SCALE MAP

SYMBOLIZATION METHODS
Have you ever noticed that some maps are easier to understand than others? Often the difference is due to the mapmakers choice and arrangement of symbols and text. A map is most effective when its symbols are easy to distinguish and their meaning is intuitive. Your choice of symbols and labels will be influenced by the type of map you are making.

Symbolization cartographers vocabulary

Symbolization, along with selection, classification and simplification make up the cartographic generalization process. Symbolization is the graphic coding of the selected and grouped essential characteristics, comparative significances and relative positions (Robinson, et al 1978). It is the cartographers vocabulary; hence it is the maps language. As you have seen in Unit 2, the map user must be able to communicate with the cartographer to get the required information. Therefore the choice, designing and positioning of symbols is very important to make the map serve its purpose.

Meaning and purpose of symbols

The issue of symbols and their meaning is therefore particularly crucial in cartography. Since symbols give meaning to the map, it must be the case then that they have to be carefully chosen, designed and located or represented in order to convey to the map user adequate and accurate information regarding earth reality. The process of creating graphic symbols to represent feature attribute values of reality is what we call symbolization (Robinson et. al). The cartographer turns to the symbolization process after he had applied classification, simplification/exaggeration routines to features selected for mapping. We can therefore refer to symbolization as the use of visual variables to represent the summarizations resulting from classification, and simplification/exaggeration. This is the graphic coding or application of symbols that makes generalization possible.

IMPORTANT REMINDER
While you can conclude that symbolization is critical to the success of any map, you must also realize the following: _________________________________________

Good simplification and classification procedures can be nullified by poor symbolization Good symbolization can enhance the effectiveness of simplification and classification Good symbolization can also impart/give an unwarranted impression of accuracy to poorly simplified or classified data.

The symbolization problem

In order to ensure good symbolization, cartographers usually perform two important tasks before they choose their symbols. They must: Select ( and possibly change) the measurement level of the original data values, and Conceptualize the dimension for each feature they wish to portray

Types of graphic symbols

Cartographic symbols are either graphic or photographic (colour, hue, grey tones of black and white). Graphic symbols are commonly grouped in three main categories according to their shape: Pictorial or descriptive symbols Geometrical or abstract symbols Letter or number symbols

Measurement scale level

Most symbols connote only qualitative (nominal) or quantitative (ordinal, interval, or ratio) data. While in measurement theory the distinction between interval and ratio data is important, this distinction makes little or no difference in symbolizing features. The only way we can portray interval or ratio scales is to use textual or numerical annotations to enhance the symbols.

Examples of differentiation of point, line and area feature on a nominal scale measurement.

POINT

LINE

AREA

TYPE Point Symbols

Qualitative Distinction

Quantitative Distinction

Line Symbols

Area Symbols

Volume Symbols

Review Questions
The map is necessarily selective. Discuss this statement with reference to any relevant cartographic generalization process

Identify and discuss briefly the principal cartographic generalization processes you would employ for a major mapping project in Ghana