Introduction

Lecture 02

COA by Athar Mohsin

 Introduction
• Advancement in computer system related to
development of high performance 16-bit, 32 bit and
64 bit microprocessor architecture and
microcomputer system
– IBM PC – the first microcomputer 1981, a 16 bit MP 8088
– Few years later PC/AT: personal computer advanced
technology, 80286
– Intel’s 80486: the first 32 bit MP
– Today Pentium IV based PC/AT industry standard
• Advancement is due to VLSI technology
• 50,000 or more software are available for these PC

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 Overview

Why study computer organization and architecture?

– Design better programs, including system software such as
compilers, operating systems, and device drivers
• Writing complex program and algorithm- need a computer run efficiently
• Some algorithms infeasible today-could be feasible tomorrow
– Current rate of innovation predict this

– Optimize program behavior

• Why the implementation of feasible algorithm running slowly
– See the program from computer’s point of view
– Understanding of computer working is important

– Evaluate (benchmark) computer system performance

• Concept of benchmarking is important for computer professional
• How hardware interact with the software
• Understand time, space, and price tradeoffs.
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 Architecture & Organization
• Architecture is those attributes visible to the
programmer
– Instruction set, number of bits used for data
representation, I/O mechanisms, addressing techniques.
• e.g. Is there a multiply instruction?
– All Intel x86 family share the same basic architecture
• Organization is how features are implemented
– Control signals, interfaces, memory technology.
• e.g. Is there a hardware multiply unit or is it done by repeated
addition?
– Organization differs between different versions

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 Overview

• Computer organization
– Addresses issues such as control signals (how the computer
is controlled), signaling methods and memory types
– Encompasses all physical aspects of computer systems.
• E.g., circuit design, control signals, memory types.
– How does a computer work?
• Computer architecture
– Focus on the structure and behavior of the computer system and
– Refer to Logical aspects of system implementation as seen by
the programmer.
• E.g., instruction sets, instruction formats, data types, addressing
modes.
– How do I design a computer?

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 Computer Components

• There is no clear distinction between matters related to

computer organization and matters relevant to computer
architecture.
– In microcomputers the distinction is very close
• Changes in technology influence both organization and architecture
• Principle of Equivalence of Hardware and Software:
– Anything that can be done with software can also be done with
hardware, and anything that can be done with hardware can
also be done with software.*
• Many computer manufacturers offers a family of computer models
– All Intel x86 family share the same basic architecture
– The IBM System/370 family share the same basic architecture
– This gives code compatibility
• At least backwards
– Organization differs between different versions

* Assuming speed is not a concern.

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 Computer Components

• At the most basic level, a computer is a device

consisting of three pieces:
– A processor to interpret and execute programs
– A memory to store both data and programs
– A mechanism for transferring data to and from the
outside world.

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 Open System Architecture
• The IBM personal computer (PC)- in 80s the earliest
microcomputer that used a 16 bit microprocessor – 8088
• IBM PC’s success is due to “open system Architecture”
– The functionality of the PC expands by simply adding boards into the
system
• Add on memory, modem, serial communication interfaces and local area
network interfaces
– System expansion is enabled by the PC’s expansion bus
• 8-bit expansion bus standard – I/O channel
• 16- bit high performance I/O expansion bus “ industry standard
architecture – ISA, PC/AT
• New high speed bus architecture “peripheral component interface- PCI
bus, has replaced ISA in P-IV and support 32 bit and 64 bit data transfer
– PCI permits connection of high performance I/O interfaces, such as
» Graphics , video and high speed local area network (LAN)
» Data transfer rate is 10 times faster than ISA bus

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 Open System Architecture
• Reasons of success
– Open System architecture
• PC power can be extended by adding boards into the system
– Modem, additional memory, serial communication and LAN
– Known as interfacing peripherals to the system
• System expansion is enabled by PC’s expansion bus
– 8 bit expansion bus: I/O channel, allow add ins products
» ISA: industry Standard Architecture
– 32-bit and 64-bit data interface, PCI: Peripheral Component Interface
» High speed LAN, graphic and video
» Data transfer rate is 10 times faster than ISA
– Microcomputer
– Mini computer
– Main frame computer
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 Main, mini & micro
• Mainframe
– Used in the environment where it serve for large number of
users
• University or where large data processing is a requirement
• Minicomputer
– Large number of users accessing some central machine
through dumb terminal
– Not self sufficient computers, if central machine is not
working no terminal will also be working
• Microcomputer
– Known as PC, designed for used by individual as standalone
or through connected through LAN
– It is a general purpose electronic data processing machine

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 General Architecture
• The hardware of a microcomputer system can be
divided in four functional sections
– The input unit
– The microprocessor unit
– The memory unit
– The output unit
• Each unit has a special function
• The communication medium that is linking these
units is bus
– The address bus
– The data bus
– The control bus

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 General Architecture of microcomputer

Primary Storage memory

Program Data Secondary Storage

Storage Storage memory
memory memory

Input Microprocessor Output

unit unit unit

The heart of microcomputer system, implemented with a VLSI device – “

Microprocessor or just Processor ” A general purpose processing unit built into a
single IC
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 General Architecture of microcomputer
• General Architecture of microcomputer:
– The input and output unit
– The memory unit
• Program storage memory
• Data storage memory
• Secondary storage memory
– Each unit has a specific function in the system
• The microprocessor unit, the heart of the system, implemented
with a VLSI device, built into an IC
– Responsible to perform all arithmetic operations and taking logic
decisions based on software program
• I/O units communicate with outside world
• Memory unit: to store information
– Hold the information for processing or for outputting at a later stage
– Memory can be categorized as
» Primary storage and secondary storage
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 Microcomputer Architecture
• Secondary storage
– Long term storage that is not currently being used
• CD, DVD, Floppy, HDD and tape
• 512 MB to 100 GB and more
• Primary storage
– Normally smaller in size and used for temporary storage
of active information
• Operating system, the currently running program, the data
currently being processed
– Program storage section: store instructions of Operating system and
application program
– Data Storage section: normally contains data that are to be
processed by the program as they are executed
– Primary storage is implemented with RAM and ROM
• Volatile and non volatile in nature
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 An Example System

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 An Example System

The microprocessor is the “brain” of

the system. It executes program
instructions. This one is a Pentium
(Intel) running at 4.20GHz.

A system bus moves data within the

computer. The faster the bus the better.
This one runs at 400MHz.

DDR SDRAM or Double-Data-Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random

Access Memory is a class of memory integrated circuit. It achieves greater
bandwidth than the single-data-rate SDRAM by transferring data on the
rising and falling edges of the clock signal.
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 Microprocessor
• Part of computer that actually executes program
instructions refers as Brain of computer
• Every computer consists of clock that keep system
synchronized
– It sends electrical pulses simultaneously to main
components
• Ensuring that data and instructions are there where they are
supposed to be at one time
– Measured in Hz
– As there is nothing gets done in computer without the
involvement of microprocessor
• Frequency rating of microprocessor is crucial to overall system
speed
– 4.20 GHz
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 Program execution
• The fact that microprocessor runs at 4.20 GHz,
however it does not mean that it can execute 4.20
billion instructions every second
– Some instructions required one clock cycle to run while
some need more than one
• The number of clock cycle required to carry out a
particular machine instruction is a function of
– Machine organization and
– Machine architecture

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 An Example System

400MHz refer to the speed of

system bus, that moves data and
instructions to various places

This system has 256MB of (fast)

synchronous dynamic RAM
(SDRAM) . . .

… and two levels of cache memory, the level 1 (L1)

cache is smaller and (probably) faster than the L2 cache.
Note that these cache sizes are measured in KB.
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 An Example System

• Computers with large main memory capacity can run larger

programs with greater speed than computers having small
memories.
– 256MB or about 256 million character refers to memory capacity
– Determine the size of the program that can be run, and how many
program can be run
• RAM is an acronym for random access memory. Random
access means that memory contents can be accessed directly if
you know its location
– SDRAM short for synchronous dynamic random access memory
much faster as it synchronize itself with microprocessor bus

• Cache is a type of temporary memory that can be

accessed faster than RAM.
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 Cache memory
• Cache is a type of temporary memory that can be
accessed faster than RAM
– 32 KB L1 cache small, fast memory that is built into the
microprocessor chip and help speed up access to
frequently used data
– 256 KB L2 cache is a collection of fast, built-in memory
chips situated between microprocessor and main
memory

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 An Example System

Hard disk capacity determines

the amount of data and size of
programs you can store.

This one can store 80GB. 7200 RPM is the rotational

speed of the disk. Generally, the faster a disk rotates,
the faster it can deliver data to RAM. (There are many
other factors involved.)

Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA) is a standard interface for

connecting storage devices
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 An Example System

ATA stands for advanced technology attachment,

which describes how the hard disk interfaces with (or
connects to) other system components.

A CD can store about 650MB of data. This drive

supports rewritable CDs, CD-RW, that can be written
to many times.. 48x describes its speed.

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 An Example System

Ports allow movement of data

between a system and its external
devices.

This system has

ten ports.

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 Example System

• Serial ports send data as a series of pulses along

one or two data lines.
• Parallel ports send data as a single pulse along at
least eight data lines.
• USB, Universal Serial Bus, is an intelligent serial
interface that is self-configuring. (It supports “plug
and play.”)

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 An Example System

System buses can be augmented by

dedicated I/O buses. PCI, peripheral
component interface, is one such bus.

This system has three PCI devices: a video

card, a sound card, and a data/fax modem.

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 An Example System

The number of times per second that the image on a

monitor is repainted is its refresh rate. The dot pitch
of a monitor tells us how clear the image is.

This one has a dot pitch of 0.24mm and a refresh rate of 75Hz.

The video card contains memory and

programs that support the monitor.

Peripheral Component Interconnect, a local bus standard developed by

Intel Corporation.

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 An Example measuring System

Measures of capacity and speed:

• Kilo- (K) = 1 thousand = 103 and 210
• Mega- (M) = 1 million = 106 and 220
• Giga- (G) = 1 billion = 109 and 230
• Tera- (T) = 1 trillion = 1012 and 240
• Peta- (P) = 1 quadrillion = 1015 and 250
• Exa- (E) = 1 quintillion = 1018 and 260
• Zetta- (Z) = 1 sextillion = 1021 and 270
• Yotta- (Y) = 1 septillion = 1024 and 280

Whether a metric refers to a power of ten or a power

of two typically depends upon what is being measured.
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 An Example measuring System

• Hertz = clock cycles per second (frequency)

– 1MHz = 1,000,000Hz
– Processor speeds are measured in MHz or GHz.
• Byte = a unit of storage
– 1KB = 210 = 1024 Bytes
– 1MB = 220 = 1,048,576 Bytes
– Main memory (RAM) is measured in MB
– Disk storage is measured in GB for small systems, TB for
large systems.

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 An Example measuring System

Measures of time and space:

• Milli- (m) = 1 thousandth = 10 -3 or 2 -10
• Micro- (µ ) = 1 millionth = 10 -6 or 2 -20
• Nano- (n) = 1 billionth = 10 -9 or 2 -30
• Pico- (p) = 1 trillionth = 10 -12 or 2 -40
• Femto- (f) = 1 quadrillionth = 10 -15
• Atto- (a) = 1 quintillionth = 10 -18
• Zepto- (z) = 1 sextillionth = 10 -21
• Yocto- (y) = 1 septillionth = 10 -24

If we want to talk about how fast something is, we speak in terms of fractions
of second- thousandths, millionths or trillionth
Shown as exponents

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 An Example System

• Millisecond = 1 thousandth of a second

– Hard disk drive access times are often 10 to 20
milliseconds.
• Nanosecond = 1 billionth of a second
– Main memory access times are often 50 to 70
nanoseconds.
• Micron (micrometer) = 1 millionth of a meter
– Circuits on computer chips are measured in microns.

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 Standards Organizations

• There are many organizations that set computer hardware

standards-- to include the interoperability of computer
components.
• Throughout this course, and in your career, you will encounter
many of them.
• Some of the most important standards-setting groups are:
– The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
• Promotes the interests of the worldwide electrical engineering
community.
• Establishes standards for computer components, data representation,
and signaling protocols, among many other things.

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 Standards Organizations

• The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

– Concerns itself with the interoperability of telecommunications
systems, including data communications and telephony.
• National groups establish standards within their respective
countries:
– The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
– The British Standards Institution (BSI)
• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
– Establishes worldwide standards for everything from screw
threads to photographic film.
– Is influential in formulating standards for computer hardware
and software, including their methods of manufacture.

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