ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture 1 Introduction to Machine Design

The Design Process

Identification of need Background research Define design specifications S nthesis !"rain stor#ing$ #an designs% Initia& 'na& sis Se&ection !narro( do(n to 1 or ) designs% Detai&ed design and ana& sis Protot ping and testing Production Machine Design

Machine Design in *e&ationship to +inite E&e#ent 'na& sis

Machine design and finite e&e#ent ana& sis !+E'% co#p&e#ent each other Machine design techni,ues shou&d always "e used for the initia& ana& sis of a design

'&&o(s designs to "e ,uick& ana& -ed and carried on to the ne.t design stage or ru&ed out If +E' is needed &ater$ the accurac of the +E' setup can "e easi& /erified

+actor of Safet

0ther +or#u&ations for +actor of Safet

+actors of Safet
1eeded for four pri#ar reasons2
13
)3 53

4ncertaint in #ateria& properties

Lot to &ot /ariation Materia&s (ith &arge inherent /ariation

43 53
73 73 83 93

6eo#etr or processing /ariation 4nkno(n usage and en/iron#enta& conditions

Transportation Te#perature$ hu#idit Misuse or o/er&oading :orrosion

1;3
113

'ccurac on ana& sis #ode&s of the design

<a/e #ode&s "een /erified (ith testing

=e Points
Definition of factor of safet and (h is a factor of safet needed Materia& inf&uence on the factor of safet *e&ationship of #achine design to the design process *e&ationship of #achine design to +E'

ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture ) Stress$ Strain$ and Def&ection 1

6enera& State of Stress for a 5D Bod

The stress at a particu&ar &ocation (ithin a "od can "e /isua&i-ed using an infinitesi#a& cu"e +or a "od under &oad$ there are nine stress co#ponents that co#p&ete& define the stress state for that "od The /a&ues of the stress are a function of the orientation of the stress cu"e re&ati/e to the "od !the choice of coordinate s ste# #atters>%

Stress Tensor for a 6enera& 5D Bod

The first subscript for shear stress indicates the face that the stress is applied to and the second subscript indicates the direction of the shear stress The stress tensor is symmetric:

Results in 6 independent stress values

Stress Sign :on/ention

P&ane Stress
' state of stress that occurs (hen the stress in one direction is -ero :o##on& occurs in pro"&e#s (ith "ea#s !under #an &oading conditions% and thin p&ates If - is taken to "e the direction of -ero stress$ the stress and strain #atrices si#p&ifies to2

Principa& Stresses
There is a&(a s a stress direction (here the shear stresses are -ero These stresses are kno(n as the principal stresses The a.es a&igned (ith these nor#a& stresses are kno(n as the principa& a.es The shear stresses are a #a.i#u# at a.es that are 45 degrees fro# the principa& a.es

Principa& Stress !P&ane Stress :ase%

?h are Principa& Stresses I#portant@

+ai&ure criteria are usua&& in ter#s of principa& stress 0ftenti#es$ the coordinate s ste# used for ca&cu&ation doesnAt a&ign (ith the principa& a.es ' si#p&e e.a#p&e is a "ritt&e #ateria& under a torsiona& &oad '&so$ for a pure a.ia& &oading case$ the principa& shear stress is not -ero

Stresses in Bea#s !pure "ending$ straight "ea#s%

Peak stress for BCDE c

Ma. Shear Stresses for :o##on :ross Sections

=e Points
The /a&ues of the stress tensor depend on the coordinate s ste# chosen ?hat is the p&ane stress assu#ption@ +or a "ea# (ith a &engthEtoEdepth ratio of 1; or #ore$ the shear stress do to trans/erse &oading can "e genera&& ignored Be a"&e to co#pute the principa& stresses and #a. principa& shear for the cases (hen the on& stress is or the case (hen the on& stress is

ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture 5 Stress$ Strain$ and Def&ection )

Statica&& Indeter#inate Bea#s

?hen the nu#"er of reactions for a "ea# e.ceeds its nu#"er of e,ui&i"riu# e,uations$ the "ea# is said to "e Statically Indeterminate 'dditiona& e,uations need to "e (ritten in order to so&/e for the redundant constraints There are nu#erous #anua& #ethods to ca&cu&ate this ,uantit $ the #ost con/enient #ethod is the Method of Superposition Finite element analysis can a&so "e used to so&/e for the reaction &oads for statica&& indeter#inate pro"&e#s

=e Points
Definition of a statica&& indeter#inate structure and the t(o preferred so&ution approaches to so&/e these pro"&e#s

ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture 4 Stress$ Strain$ and Def&ection 5

Pure Torsiona& Loading !circu&ar "ea#s on& %

Stress2
cross section for a ho&&o( circu&ar cross section po&ar area #o#ent for a so&id circu&ar

Def&ection2

!shear #odu&us%

Pure Torsiona& Loading !nonE circu&ar sections%

Ma. Shear Stress2 Def&ection2 = and F are functions of cross section geo#etr and are ta"u&ated for different cross sections

Stress :oncentrations
'/erage stress in region of cross sectiona& area2

'ctua& Peak Stress2 515 kPa

Stress :oncentration +actor

Stress :oncentration +actor2 Ma.i#u# Stress at :oncentration2

(here the no#ina& stress is co#puted using the reduced area caused " the stress concentration

?hen are Stress :oncentrations I#portant@

Ducti&e #ateria&s under static &oading

Stress concentration #a "e ignored Loca&i-ed interna& ie&ding of the #ateria& acts to distri"ute the &oad e/en& throughout the #ateria& #a "e used to predict fai&ure Stress concentrations #ust "e accounted for e/en for static &oading The one e.ception are castE"ritt&e #ateria&s (hich ha/e enough interna& stress risers that e.terna& stress concentrations are insignificant '&(a s treat as "ritt&e e/en for ducti&e #ateria&s So#e #ateria&s are #ore sensiti/e than others

Britt&e #ateria&s under static &oading

D na#ic Loading !fatigue or i#pact &oading%

=e Points
4nderstanding of shear stress distri"ution for a circu&ar "ea# under torsion <o( to co#pute principa& stresses for a pro"&e# (ith "oth "ending and torsiona& &oading <o( to app& stress concentration factors and kno( (hen it is re,uired to use the#

ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture 5 Stress$ Strain$ and Def&ection 4

:o&u#ns in '.ia& :o#pression

:o&u#ns or "ea#s in a.ia& co#pression ha/e a "uck&ing fai&ure #echanis# in addition to a #a. co#pressi/e stress fai&ure +or &ong co&u#ns or "ea#s$ "uck&ing (i&& "e the pri#ar fai&ure #echanis#

Buck&ing Load for a PinnedEPinned :o&u#n

Taking nB1$ the critica& &oad re,uired to "uck&e the "ea# is2

Define2

The critica& &oad can no( "e e.pressed as2

:o##ents on the PinnedEPinned Buck&ing So&ution

'ssu#ptions2

The co&u#n geo#etr is perfect& straight and (ithout defects The &oad passes through the centroid of the "ea#s cross section e.act&

+or the area #o#ent of inertia in the radius of g ration e,uation$ a&(a s use the s#a&&est /a&ue for a nonE circu&ar cross section In genera&$ "uck&ing #ust "e considered for co&u#ns (ith a s&enderness ration of greater than 1; Buck&ing fai&ure depends on the e&astic #odu&us of the #ateria& and not the co#pressi/e fai&ure stress

Buck&ing So&ution for 0ther End :onditions

Buck&ing So&ution for 0ther End :onditions

Inter#ediate :o&u#ns
The critica& unit &oad has the units of
pressure The critica& unit &oad #akes it straight for(ard to co#pare fai&ure due to co#pressi/e stress to fai&ure due to "uck&ing

Gohnson +ai&ure :riteria

The "oundar "et(een
Gohnson fai&ure and Eu&er fai&ure is set at ha&f of the co#pressi/e ie&d stress and is defined as2

The Gohnson critica& &oad

is2

So&ution Strateg for Bea#s Loaded E.act& at the :entroid

:a&cu&ate the s&enderness ratio and co#pare to the transition "et(een the Gohnson and Eu&er fai&ure regions

If then2 e&se2

=e Takea(a s
=no( (hen the "uck&ing fai&ure #echanis# needs to considered =no( (hen to app& the Gohnson or Eu&er "uck&ing theor =no( the assu#ptions of the Eu&er "uck&ing theor

ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture 7 Static +ai&ure Theories

Britt&e /s3 Ducti&e Materia&s

If a #ateria& e.periences greater than 5H e&ongation "efore fracture$ it can "e considered ducti&e Most ducti&e #eta&s e.perience an e&ongation of greater than 1;H "efore fracture

Lo(E:ar"on Stee&

'nnea&ed <ighE:ar"on Stee&

+ai&ure of Ducti&e Materia&s 4nder Static Loading

+or ducti&e #ateria&s$ testing has consistent& sho(n that distortion energy is the "est predictor for fai&ure Since #ost #ateria& testing occurs using tensi&e test speci#ens$ the /on Mises e,ui/a&ent stress pro/ides the tensi&e stress that (ou&d resu&t in the sa#e distortion energ as the #ateria&s current stress state

/on Mises E,ui/a&ent Stress for P&ane Stress

or

Ducti&e Materia& Iie&d :riteria 4nder Static Loading

4nder static &oading conditions$ ducti&e #ateria& are considered to ie&d (hen their /on Mises e,ui/a&ent stress e.ceeds the #ateria&As ie&d stress The factor of safet for a ducti&e #ateria& under static &oading can than "e defined as2

+ai&ure of Britt&e Materia&s 4nder Static Loading

Even Materials: E/en #ateria&s ha/e e,ua& co#pressi/e and tensi&e strengths$ ducti&e #ateria&s are often e/en #ateria&s Uneven Materials: Britt&e #ateria&s are often une/en #ateria&s ha/ing a co#pressi/e strength that is significant& higher then there tensi&e strength !5E4 ti#es higher for cast iron$ e/en greater for cera#ics% T pica&& $ "ritt&e #ateria&s ha/e a shear strength that is greater then there tensi&e strength

ModifiedEMohr +ai&ure Map !&ight and dark red regions together%

Deter#ining the +ai&ure Thresho&d for Britt&e Materia&s 4nder Static Loading +or stress in the first ,uadrant !2 +or stress in the third ,uadrant !2

Deter#ining the +ai&ure Thresho&d for Britt&e Materia&s 4nder Static Loading +or stress in the fourth ,uadrant !$ 1 is the s#a&&er of2
or

ModifiedEMohr Effecti/e Stress

+actor of Safet for ModifiedE Mohr Effecti/e Stress

=e Takea(a s for Static +ai&ure Theories

Procedure for ca&cu&ating factor of safet for static fai&ure for "oth ducti&e and "ritt&e #ateria&s

ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture 7 +racture Mechanics

+racture Mechanics
Ducti&e #ateria&s can e.hi"it "ritt&e &ike fai&ure (hen s#a&& cracks or defects are present The de <a/i&&and :o#et aircraft e.perienced catastrophic fai&ure due to the presence of #icrocracks at ri/et ho&es (hich gre( under ser/ice &oads +racture #echanics pro/ides a fra#e (ork to deter#ine if cracks are sta"&e or if the (i&& gro(

LinearEE&astic +ractureE Mechanics !LE+M%

LE+M theor assu#es that the -one of ie&ding around the crack is s#a&& co#pared to the di#ensions of the part

Modes of :rack Disp&ace#ent

?eA&& "e assu#ing Mode I crack disp&ace#ent The princip&es &earned (i&& a&so app& to Mode II and Mode III crack disp&ace#ent

Stress Intensit +actors2 :entered :rack in a P&ate 4nder Tension

for +or genera& geo#etr 2 (here for a centered crack in a p&ate under tension

:o##ents on the Stress Intensit +actor

The units for the stress intensit factor are2 or is co#puted o/er the gross area !the area assu#ing the crack is not there%

+racture Toughness
If the stress intensit factor is "e&o( the #ateria&As fracture toughness $ the crack is considered to "e in a stable mode for a static &oading condition

Slow-growth mode for ti#e /ar ing &oad Fast-growth mode if the en/iron#ent is corrosi/e

?hen reaches $ the crack (i&& propagate sudden& to fai&ure

+actor of Safet for +racture Mechanics

=e Points for +racture Mechanics

4nderstand the situations in (hich fracture #echanics app&ies =no( ho( to co#pute the safet factor for a fracture #echanics fai&ure #ode

ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture 8 +atigue 1

Mechanis# of +atigue +ai&ure

+atigue fai&ure a&(a s "egins at a crack :rack #a ha/e initia&& "een present or #a initiate due to c c&ic ie&ding around stress concentrations +atigue cracks usua&& start at a stress concentration Three stages of fatigue fai&ure2

:rack initiation :rack propagation Sudden fracture due to unsta"&e crack gro(th

:rack Propagation in :orrosi/e En/iron#ents

In the presence of a corrosi/e en/iron#ent$ a crack (i&& gro( e/en under static stress

:a&&ed stress-corrosion or en/iron#enta&& assisted cracking

4nder c c&ica& &oading$ the crack (i&& gro(th fast in the presence of a corrosi/e en/iron#ent

:a&&ed corrosion fatigue Lo(er c c&e fre,uencies &ead to greater corrosion fatigue

+atigue *egi#es
Lo(Ec c&e fatigue !L:+%

'ppro.i#ate& &ess than 1;5 c c&es 'ppro.i#ate& #ore than 1;5 c c&es

<ighEc c&e fatigue !<:+%

ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture 9 +atigue )

+u&& *e/ersed Stress +atigue Tests

*otatingEBea# test

Speci#en is po&ished to a #irror finish in order to e&i#inate an surface i#perfections 4sed to generate stressE&ife !SE1% p&ots

*otating Bea# Test Setup

SE1 P&ot for Stee&

SE1 P&ot for '&u#inu# '&&o s

Materia&s (ith and (ithout +atigue Li#its

Materia&s (ith an endurance &i#it2

Lo( strength car"on and a&&o stee&s So#e stain&ess stee&s Irons Mo& "denu# a&&o s Titaniu# a&&o s So#e po& #ers '&u#inu# Magnesiu# :opper 1icke& a&&o s So#e stain&ess stee&s <igh strength car"on and a&&o stee&s

Materia&s (ithout an endurance &i#it2

Esti#ate +atigue Strength or Endurance Li#its

+&uctuating Stress
The SE1 diagra#s used so far ha/e assu#ed that the #ean stress$ $ is ; !fu&& re/ersed

&oading% The presence of a positi/e #ean stress decreases the fatigue &ife of the part due to the additiona& tensi&e stress on the crack

The ModifiedE6ood#an Diagra# for 6enera& +atigue Pro"&e#s

:a&cu&ating a +actor of Safet for +&uctuating Loads

Take the s#a&&er of2

or

Mu&tia.ia& Stresses2 +u&& *e/ersed or +&uctuating Loads

/on Mises stresses has "een o"ser/ed to "est corre&ate (ith fatigue

testing for a part &oaded in #u&tia.ia& stress The /on Mises and /a&ues can "e co#pared direct& to the #odifiedE 6ood#an diagra# or to the SE1 diagra# for the case (hen e,ua&s -ero

6enera& 'pproach to <ighE : c&e +atigue Pro"&e#s

6enerate a #odifiedE6ood#an diagra# for the #ateria& at the desired nu#"er of c c&es :a&cu&ate the a&ternating and #ean co#ponents of the app&ied stresses at an point of interest and app& the appropriate fatigue stress concentration factor :on/ert the a&ternating and #ean co#ponents of the app&ied stresses to /on Mises effecti/e stresses :a&cu&ate the factors of safet using the #odifiedE 6ood#an diagra#

=e Points
:reating an SE1 diagra# for #ateria&s (ith and (ithout and endurance &i#it =no( so#e e.a#p&e #ateria&s (ith and (ithout an endurance &i#it =no( the appro.i#ate "oundar "et(een L:+ and <:+

ME 4175 Machine Design

Lecture 9 +atigue 5

1otches and Stress :oncentration

The stress concentration factor can "e used direct& for "ritt&e #ateria&s under static &oading +or d na#ic &oading$ the fatigue stressconcentration factor needs to "e used for "oth ducti&e and "ritt&e #ateria&s Materia&s ha/e different sensiti/ities to stress concentrations as indicated " a #ateria&As notch sensitivity

1otch Sensiti/it
Materia&s that are #ore ducti&e are &ess notch sensiti/e Lo(Estrength$ soft #ateria&s tend to "e &ess notch sensiti/e than highEstrength hard #ateria&s 1otch sensiti/it a&so depends on the notch radius The notch sensiti/it approaches -ero as the notch radius approaches -ero

:a&cu&ation of the +atigue Stress :oncentration +actor

is the theoretica& stressEconcentration factor is the fatigue stressEconcentration factor is the notch sensiti/it and /aries "et(een ; and 1 The a"o/e e,uation can "e reE(ritten as2

the resu&ting stress can "e co#puted as2

:a&cu&ating the 1otch Sensiti/it

=uhnE<ardrath for#u&a is the #ateria& dependent 1eu"er
constant is the notch radius

=e Points
=no( ho( to hand&e stress concentrations for high c c&e fatigue pro"&e#s