Control de Sólidos.

03/TMP/ALFALAVAL/ST/11.
97
Drilling Fluid Treatment
The Fluid Process

DRILLING FLUID
ADDITIVES
DRILLING
SOLIDS CONTROL
SOLIDS + FLUID
MIXING
WASTE MANAGEMENT
03/TMP/ALFALAVAL/ST/11.97
Fluid pumped down
Drilling Fluid Carries drilled solids to the surface

Transmits downhole information Controls formation pressure Lubricates and cools the bit
Fluid to surface treatment Casing
Drill pipe Drilled solids
Solids Control Maintains desired fluid properties

by removal of drilled solids Bore hole Flushing action Drill bit
Drilling Fluid Components

LIQUID
OIL WATER
ESTER/ ETHER
DIESEL
LOW TOXIC
CRUDE
FRESH WATER
BRINE
EMULSIFIERS AND SOLUBLE CHEMICALS
SOLUBLE CHEMICALS
SOLIDS
REACTIVE
COMMERCIAL CLAYS AND POLYMERS
INERT
HYDRATABLE DRILL SOLIDS
WEIGHTING SOLIDS
INERT DRILL SOLIDS

Mud Solids
PV, YP and gels are all affected by mud solids. These may be divided into two types, high and low gravity. High Gravity Solids (HGS) This term refers to the weighting material added to a weighted mud to increase mud density. The ideal weighting agent should have the following properties: a. High specific gravity to minimize volume required for a given density. b. Must be chemically inert. c. Low abrasiveness.
Mud Solids (cont.)

The most commonly used weighting agent is barites or barium sulfate (BaSO4), commonly referred to as barite. This was first used as a mud additive in 1923 to control gas influx to a well in California. The API specification for barite is: Specific gravity - 4.2 minimum Particle size - maximum 3% > 74 microns minimum 5% > 44 microns Other weighting agents commonly used include hematite (Fe203), specific gravity 4.9 - 5.3 and dolomite (calcium / magnesium carbonate) specific gravity 2.8 - 2.9. Hematite is used where mud weights in excess of 16 - 17 ppg are required, i.e., severely over pressured areas. Dolomite is used for a low -weight weighted system where the reservoir must be stimulated by acidizing.
Mud Solids (cont.)

Low Gravity Solids (LGS) Low gravity solids comprises all other solids in the mud. The average specific gravity of LGS is usually taken to be 2.6 or 2.65 in solids analysis calculations. LGS can be further subdivided as follows: Desirable commercial solids added to provide specific mud properties, e.g., bentonite, and polymers drilled solids
Undesirable
Mud Solids (cont.)

Desirable Solids These include the following: Bentonite or Gel Bentonite is a high grade of fine grained, natural occurring sodium montmorillonite clay used in drilling mud. It is primarily used to increase viscosity and control fluid loss. Bentonite is made up of a large number of flat, thin sheets. Because of its plate-like structure and chemical make-up, it has the ability to absorb water and swell (or hydrate) 10-15 times its original volume when placed in fresh water.
Mud Solids (cont.)

Desirable Solids Bentonite or Gel (cont.)
Some of the specific properties bentonite provides are:

1. Adequate viscosity to suspend weight material. 2. A thin, impervious filter cake and proper colloidal particle size distribution for improved fluid loss control. 3. Proper viscosity to remove cuttings from the well bore. 4. Adequate gel strengths to suspend cuttings when mud circulation is stopped. 5. Lubricity which reduces friction and equipment wear.
API specifications on bentonite for use in drilling muds are: 1. A yield of at least 90 bbls per ton in fresh water. 2. No more than 4% should be retained on a 200 mesh screen (74 microns) in the wet screen analysis.
Mud Solids (cont.)

Desirable Solids Polymers Various polymers may be added to water based mud for viscosity control or to aid in prevention in the hydration, swelling and dispersion of clay minerals.
Density of Various Materials Used In Mud

Material Oil Water Low Gravity Solids Bentonite Calcium Carbonate Specific Gravity .84 1.0 2.6 2.6 2.8 PPG 7 8.33 21.7 21.7 23.3 PPB 294 350 910 910 980
Barite
Illmenite Hematite Drill Solids
4.2 min.
4.5 5.0 2.0 - 3.0
35
37.5 41.7 -
1469
1574 1749 -
Effect of Drilled Solids on Mud System
Reduced ROP Increased Mud Costs Increased Risk of Differential Sticking Increased Drag and Torque Increased Erosion of Surface Equipment Increased Risk of Lost Circulation and Formation Damage Poor Cement Jobs Increased Environmental Impact
Amount of Drill Solids Generated

bbl/100ft
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
m3/100 m
26 17 12 8 Hole size (inch)
26 17 12 8
API Mud Solids Size Classification
Category Coarse Intermediate Medium Fine Ultra-fine Colloidal
Size Range (m) >2000 250 - 2000 74 - 250 44 - 74 2 - 24 <2 Human hair
Examples 30 - 200 5 - 50 3 - 100 35 7
Talcum powder Cement dust Cosmetic powder Red blood corpuscles
DRILLED SOLIDS DEGRADION
A 20 micron drilled solid surface area = 2400 sq. microns
The same solid cut in half on each face
Another 1/4 cut on each face.
The original 20 micron solid reduced and sized 2 micron particles. Surface area 24,000 sq. microns.
An idealistic representation of the gradual reduction in size of a re-cycled drilled solid by mechanical forces.
Surface Area Increase Due to Particle Degradation

Size (m) 10000 5000 2500 1250 625 313 156 78 39 20 10 5 2 Total Surface Area 6 12 24 48 96 192 384 786 1536 3072 6144 12288 24576
Differential Sticking
Fs = PAF Where: Fs P A F = Sticking force (lbs. = Differential Pressure (PST) = Area of Contact (Sq. In.) = Sticking Coefficient
CASE A: Low Solids, Thin Wall Cake P = 520 (PSI) F = 0.2 A = 240 Sq. In. (1 width of drill pipe against 20 length of filter cake
CASE B: High Solids, Thick Wall Cake P = 520 (PSI) F = 0.2 A = 960 Sq. In. (4 width of drill pipe against 20 length of filter cake Fs = 520 x 0.2 x 1 x 20 x 12 = 24,960 lbs. Fs = 520 x 0.2 x 4 x 20 x 12 = 99,840 lbs.
Suggested Operating Range for Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point (Field Muds)
60
Plastic Viscosity, CPS Yield Point LB 100 Sq. Ft. Plastic Viscosity
50 40 30 20 10 0
Yield Point
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
MUD WEIGHT LB/GAL
BARITE
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
PARTICLE DIAMETER - MICROMETERS

Effect of Barite Particle Size on Mud Flow Properties

160
PV = Plastic Viscosity, cp YP = Yield Point lb./100 sq. ft
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

0 20
PV - Adding 3 Micron and under Barites YP - Adding 3 Micron and under Barites PV - Adding API Barites YP - Adding API Barites
40
60
80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Barites in Each Barrel, lb.

Relative Effects of Shale Solids on Flow Properties Fresh Water Mud

Clay 1000 500 200 100 50 Silt Sand
20
10 5 2 1 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
PARTICLE DIAMETER - MICROMETERS

Effect of Drilled Solids on Rheology
Extra clays give large increase in viscosity
Viscosity
Extra clays give small increase in viscosity
5% % Clay in Mud
10%
Solids Control - The Key to Economy

Drilling rate
Control of density and flow properties Life of bits and surface equipment Accuracy of downhole information
Fluid costs
Disposal volumes and costs Cementing problems Risk of differential sticking
Methods for Solids Control

Three ways to obtain desired fluid properties
DILUTION Addition of new fluid DISPLACEMENT Partial Replacement of Fluid MECHANICAL SEPARATION Removal of Drill Solids
(by particle size and density difference)
Dilution
Drill Solids Drilling Mud (0% Drill Solids)
Solids Control Equipment
Fluid from Hole Solids Discharge
Fluid to replace volume of solids discharged and fluid lost
Fluid to Hole
Dilution Equation
VR = VS (LS - LD) LD - LA
Where: VR = Dilution volume required LS = Volume % LGS in system VS = Volume of mud in LD = Volume % LGS desired circulating system LA = Volume % LGS in dilution fluid Example a) System volume = 1000 bbl LGS in system = 8% LGS desired = 6% Dilution with water i.e. zero % LGS VR = 1000 (8-6) = 2000 = 333 bbl b) 6 6 If the dilution fluid contained 2% bentonite, this would be: VR = 1000 (8-6) = 2000 = 500 bbl 6-2 4
Solids Removal with Displacement (Dump) / Dilution

Drill Solids Drilling Mud (0% Drill Solids)
Dilution Mud
Solids Control Equipment
Mud from Hole Solids Discharge
Mud to Replace Volume of Solids Discharged and Mud Lost with Solids
Mud to Hole Mud / Solids Discarded (Dumped)

Displacement Equation
VR = VS (LS - LD) LS - LA Example (Using same figures as dilution examples) a) VR = 1000 (8-6) = 2000 = 250 bbl 8 8 b) VR = 1000 (8-6) = 2000 = 333 bbl 8-2 6
Displacement Equation (cont.)

Summary Water Vol. 2% Bentonite Required (bbl) Slurry Required (bbl) W S W 333 500 Displacement 250
Dilution
S 333
The major disadvantages of dilution are:

a) Cannot continue indefinitely since limits imposed by split capacity would be exceeded. b) High cost due to large volumes needed.
c) Increased maintenance costs for larger system.

Displacement maintains a constant system volume, but has three disadvantages compared to mechanical methods: a) Environmental impact of displaced mud. b) High cost due to large volumes needed. c) High disposal costs.
DILUTION TO REDUCE SOLIDS BY 50%
10% Drill Solids
0% Drill Solids
5% Drill Solids
5% Drill Solids
DISPLACEMENT
2 BARRELS
10% Discards Drill Solids
0% Drill Solids
5% Drill Solids
1 BARREL
Comparison Between Dilution, Dilution with Displacement and Solids Removal

Equipment With 50%, 75%, 90% Efficiency Maintaining Max 5% Low Gravity Solids
BBLS Drill Solids Removed Dilution Displacement / Dilution 50% Solids Control 50% Efficient Solids Control 75% Efficient Solids Control 90% Efficient 0 987 987 1480 1776
BBLS of Fluid Lost 0 6248 987 1480 1776
BBLS of Dilution 39480 19740 19740 9880 3960
Figures Reflect A 13200 ft Well, 1974 BBLS of Cuttings, 50% V/V Discard Conc.
Solids Control System Design Criteria

1. Removal of drilled solids at the first available opportunity with the minimum of mechanical handling. Solids Removal Efficiency:
Mass flow rate of solids removed x 100 Mass flow rate of solids in feed

2. Removal of drilled solids in as concentrated a form as possible.
Decanting Efficiency: (% Solids Discharge - % Solids Feed) x 100 100 - % Solids Feed
Shale Shakers, Hydrocyclones and Mud Cleaners Shale Shakers

Handles 100% of circulating volume Removes solids larger than 74 m Separation by straining through screen Optimization: Linear / elliptical motions Mesh size and type Deck angle
Shale Shakers, Hydrocyclones and Mud Cleaners Hydrocyclones

Separation by density difference Desanders Diameter: 6 - 12 Handles 125% of circulating volume D50 cut point 40-45 m Desilters
Diameter: 4 Handles 125% of circulating volume D50 cut point 20-25 m

Shale Shakers, Hydrocyclones and Mud Cleaners Mud Cleaners

Desilter mounted over fine mesh shale shaker For use in weighted and / or expensive fluid
systems
Discards drilled solids while retaining expensive barite, chemicals and liquids in the fluid system
Mechanical Separation Equipment

Operating Ranges and Efficiency % Solids Removed 30 - 70 5 - 10 5 - 10 10 - 15 30 - 40
Shale Shakers
Mud Cleaners
Desanders Desilters Baroids Decanter Centrifuges
150
125
100
75
50
25
Shale Shaker
Mud Box (Back Tank Possum Belly)
Course Mount Discharge
Liquid and Fine Solids
____ Isolation Members (Shock Mount) Basket
No. of Decks Motion Screen Type Screen Mesh Deck Angle Basket Angle Stroke Thrust
Shale Shaker Motion

Direction of Rotation Vibrator Vibrator (B)
(A)
V
Mechanical or Pneumatic Circular Motion
Elliptical & Circular Vibrator
Straight Line
Linear Motion
Counter Eccentric
Rotating Eccentric
Solids Bed Solids Direction

Screen Cloth Weaves
1. Plain Square Weave

Providing a straight through flow path with the same diameter warp and shut wires in and over the under pattern. This is the most common weave producing the same mesh count vertically and horizontally.
2. Rectangular Opening
Provides maximum open area and tends to prevent binding or clogging of material. Does not build up on the loner openings and smaller dimension controls the sizing of material.
Screen Cloth Weaves (cont.)
3. Plain Dutch Weave

Produces a tapered opening reducing flow rate. Warp wire are heavier in a plain weave and threshold wires are driven close and crimped at each pass.
4. Twilled Square Weave

With the pattern of over two wires and under two wires this weave produces a diagonal effect. To provide greater strength and corrosion resistance a larger diameter wire can be woven.
MARKET GRADE SCREEN

Screening Cloth
LAYERED SCREEN
Screening Cloth
Backing Cloth
Backing Cloth
Screen Cloth Grades

Extra heavy Heavy Medium Market grade Tensile bolting cloth Mill
OPEN AREA OA = (1 - nd)2 x 100 Where: OA = % open area n = mesh count d = wire diameter
API Separation Potential Curve (Cutt Points)

100
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 70 80 92 100 102 107 110 112 114 120 130
Equivalent Spherical Diameter Micrometer Separation Potential Curve Market Grade 150 x 150
Separation Efficiency Curves

100
Ideal classifier
Separation efficiency %
80
60
40
20
Layered 110 D90 = 195 m D50 = 136 m D10 = 58 m
D50 = 136 m for both screens
Market grade 100 x 100 D90 = 136 m D50 = 136 m D10 = 105 m
200 300 400 500 600 800
30
40 50 60 80 100
Particle size, microns
API Specification RP13E

All screens should be labeled with:
Manufacturers designation
Separation potential (d50, d16, d84 Cutt points) Flow capacity (conductance and non-blanked area)
Operational Considerations
Listed below are general guidelines for the operation of shale shakers in the field.
Shaker Condition
Shale shakers should be regularly maintained according to manufacturers maintenance schedules.
Bed rubbers, shock mounts, tension bolt assemblies, pneumatic bladders, hydraulic lines, etc. should be regularly inspected and replaced when worn or damaged.
Failure to do this will impair performance and probably result in having to run coarser screens for a given flow rate and ROP.
Operational Considerations (cont.)
Screen Tension and Condition

Screens should be correctly stored and handles, and should always be tensioned in accordance with manufacturers recommendations. Incorrectly tensioned screens have impaired separation efficiency and vastly reduced working life.

Selection of Screen Size The finest available mesh should be fitted which can be run without loss of whole mud from the front of the screens. As a general rule, the back two thirds to three quarters of the screen should be covered with mud. This allows for surges and rig heave when offshore. Angled single deck units of the Derrick Flo-Line type are designed to operate with a horseshoe shaped pond of mud, concave towards the front edge. Ramped screens, e.g., Thule VSM 100 or Alfa Laval Eagle, operate with a mud pond on the horizontal rear lower screens, and a dry beach on the front lower screens.

Blinding Screen blinding is caused by a reduction in the fluid transmission capability of the screens which leads to whole mud overscreen losses. There are two main reasons for this:
a) Coating The coating of screen wires by dried or sticky solids. This reduces aperture size and can drastically reduce the screens conductance. Screens should always be thoroughly washed down with a pressure wash gun if the shakers are to be turned off for a period of time. If coating is occurring due to sticky solids during drilling then a pressure gun should be constantly available at the shakers.

Blinding (cont.)
a)
Coating (cont.)
This should have a base oil feed for oil based mud and water for water based mud. The best way to deal with this problem is to have a set of clean screens standing by ready to change at connection time.

Blinding
a) Coating (cont.) The screens removed should be thoroughly cleaned ready for changing at the next connection.
If it is necessary to use the pressure gun while the screens are fitted, it should not be blasted down perpendicular to the screen since this breaks down the solids and forces them through the screen. If this problem is very severe, it may be necessary to change to coarser screens until the problem formation has been drilled.

Blinding
a) Coating (cont.)
Rectangular mesh screens may also alleviate this problem. In general, spray bars should not be used since they cause break down of the solids.

Blinding
b) Plugging As the name suggests, this problem occurs due to plugging of the screen apertures by particles of about the same size, often referred to as near sized particles. The problem is most likely to occur with plain square weave screen cloths in unconsolidated sand formations. Rectangular or layered screens will not suffer so severely from this problem for reasons already outlined. When screens blind, many people have a tendency to fit a coarser mesh. This does alleviate the problem, but is very poor solids control practice since the sand is then allowed through the screens.

Blinding
b) Plugging (Cont.) The best solution is to reduce flow rate if at all possible and to fit finer mesh screens for which the particles will no longer be near sized.

Bypassing
Most header boxes (possum bellies) have a bypass valve or valves. As the name suggests, this permits circulation to bypass the shakers and may serve as a dump valve to dump cuttings from the header box. Shakers should never be bypassed when drilling. This rapidly fills the sand trap with cuttings and leads to overload or a blockage at hydrocyclones by coarse solids. Dumping of the header box can be avoided by installing jetting lines to agitate the tank and circulate cuttings over the shakers. Jetting should be done during connections in order to avoid flooding of the screens and whole mud loss.

Shaker Hand
Shakers should always be attended when drilling in order that any malfunction or screen damage can be quickly rectified. A member of the rig crew should be assigned to the job of shaker hand and should be fully trained on the actions to be taken if problems occur.
Degasser
The degasser is used whenever there is entrained gas in the return mud flow. Removal of this gas is important for three reasons: a. Centrifugal pumps will not perform efficiently with gas- cut mud and hydrocyclones need a constant head pressure to operate efficiently. b. Re-circulation of gas cut mud is dangerous since it reduces the hydrostatic head of mud and can result in influx of formation of fluid to the well-bore. c. Mud density is important in solids content calculations. If a pressurized mud balance is not available incorrect solids content and solids analysis figures will result.
Degasser
Operating Principles There are two main modes of operation for degassers. Vacuum Vacuum degassers operate by separating gas-cut mud into thin layers followed by drawing off the gas with a vacuum pump. The thin layers are achieved by flowing the mud over a series of baffles. Cyclonic The cyclonic degasser operates by utilizing centrifugal force to separate the gas. Gas cut mud is sucked into a cylindrical or cono-cylindrical chamber at high velocity. Centrifugal force throws the mud to the outside of the chamber while gas is concentrated in the center and exits to be vented via a vortex finder.
Degasser
Installation and Operation Degassers should always take suction from the tank adjacent to the sand trap and discharge to the adjacent downstream tank. The feed rate should be greater than total circulating rate to ensure that all of the return mud flow is being processed. The back flow must be by high weir. If the back flow is beneath the mud level the gas cut mud from the sand trap may sit on top of the heavier degassed mud and may result in the suction tank overflowing.
Hydrocyclone Terminology
Feed Inlet
A
Underflow Opening Overflow Opening (Vortex finder may be same size or smaller)
Top View Not (Operating)
Top Feed Inlet Feed Chamber Liquid Discharge Opening (Overflow) Vortex Finder Working (Inside) Diameter Cone Zone of Maximum Wear Air Entry
Solids Discharge Opening (Underflow
Feed Chamber Diameter (inch)

4 6
Capacity (gpm)
Capacity (m3/hr)
Cut Point For Solids of 2.6sg (micron)

20 - 25 40 - 45
50 100
11.35 22.71
8
10 - 12
150
500
34.06
113.55
70 - 75
70 - 75
Sizing of Hydrocyclone Installations

Cone Capacities Cone Size (inch) 3 4 6 8 10 12 Number of Cones Number of cones = Max. circ. Rate (gpm) x 1.25 cone capacity (gpm)
gpm 50 50 100 150 500 500
Feedhead Most manufacturers specify 75 feet of head at feed manifold. The pressure gauge reading should therefore be: p = = = 0.052 x feet of head x ppg 0.052 x 75 x ppg 4 x ppg
Hydrocyclones
Operating Pressure Pressure Gauge Reading (PSI)
Sizing No. of cones = circ. rate x 1.25 cone capacity e.g. for 4 desilter cones gpm 200 400 600 800 1000 m3/hour 45.4 90.8 136.3 181.7 227.1 cones 5 10 15 20 25
= 0.052 x feet of head x ppg

= 0.052 x 75 x ppg = 3.9 x ppg = 4 x ppg
Mud Conditioner
Appearance of Underflow
OPERATION
Installation The desander should take suction from the degasser overflow tank and overflow to the adjacent downstream tank. Desilter suction should be from the desander overflow and again, overflow to the adjacent downstream tank. Low level equalizers between the overflow and suction tanks ensure a backflow of mud as described above. Where the bottom of the cones lies several feet above the mud level in the tanks, the overflow line may create a vacuum which sucks solids through the overflows, thereby reducing separation efficiency. This can be overcome by installation of a vacuum break. Installing the overflow line at 450 may also help to alleviate this.
OPERATION
Balancing Once the installation is completed, the cones are set up as follows: 1. Start pump with water feed to all cones. 2. Open all cone underflow openings to maximum extent. this should give a fine water spray from each cone. 3. Close down the opening until only a slow drip of water is escaping. 4. Start processing mud. Only slight further adjustment should be needed to produce spray discharge.
Spray Discharge When operating at maximum efficiency, the underflow should exit from the apex of the cone as a spray discharge.
Larger particles are thrown to the outside of the cone and travel downwards in a spiral. When solids reach the apex, they are more concentrated than in the feed mud due to the smaller area available. They exit the apex as an annular ring which forms a conical spray.
Spray Discharge (Cont.)
As solids and fluid are discharged air is sucked upwards through the center of the apex due to the creation of a low pressure zone formed by the liquid and smaller particles spiraling upwards in the center of the cone. The percentage of solids in the underflow varies from around 50% for coarse sand down to around 10% for fine silt. The underflow will weigh more than the feed mud. The solids in the overflow will less and fall in the ultra fine category. The overflow will weigh less than the feed mud.
Rope Discharge
In a rope discharge, the liquid forms 50% or sometimes less of the total underflow. The solids concentration can increase due to faster drilling or the sand trap being full of solids. There is insufficient room for all of the downwards moving solids to exit from the cone apex. The solids tend to accumulate in a dead area above the apex and the rate of solids removal is much reduced. The solids that cannot exit from the apex of a roping underflow cone will be swept up the center and exit from the overflow. This includes many of the solids that would have been removed by a spray discharge.
Rope Discharge (Cont.)
Since only the coarsest solids are discharged the surface area to weight ratio is reduced and therefore less liquid is discharged. The rope underflow will therefore have a higher density than the spray underflow for the same mud.
Rope Discharge
Solids Reporting to Overflow
A typical balanced design hydrocyclone operating inefficiently with rope type underflow
Side view diagram - half section Rope Discharge
Rapid Cone Wear
Underflow Discharge Opening

No Air Entry
Dead Area - No Rotation - No Wear Slow Falling Discharge
Partial Feed Plugging This is a potentially serious situation for mud loss and results from partial plugging of the feed inlet. the result is a reduction in the inlet velocity and a loss of separation. The cyclone action is lost and the mud entering spirals out of the underflow opening in a cone shape. Clean mud processed by other cones on the manifold may flow backwards into the cone and may also be lost. The underflow density will be less than or equal to the feed density.
Partial Feed Plugging (Cont.) Very high rates of mud loss can occur so the problem must be rectified at the first opportunity, usually by replacing the cone with a spare or removing it and blanking off the feed from the manifold at the inlet pipe connection.
Total Feed Plugging This is usually due to soft object completely plugging the outlet from the feed manifold. The mud lost is cleaned mud from other cone overflow, and floods downwards without rotation. Therefore it does not exit the apex as a cone, but as a parallel jet of mud.
Mud loss rates are extremely high and the problem must be rectified by stopping the pump, removing the cone and blanking off the feed stub.
The pump should then be restarted. The blockage can be dealt with during the next trip out of hole. The mud lost in this case is always lighter than the feed.
Balanced Design Cyclones

Side views - Half Section Diagrammatic
Figure 21 & 22 Balanced Design Cyclones with the Feed Partly Plugged (left) End Completely Plugged (right)
Straight Down Flow Indicates All Mud Entering Backwards Through Overflow The Smooth Shape Indicates Rotation Due to Mud Entering the Feed Inlet
a. Coning due to Partial Plugging of Inlet
b. Flooding Due to Complete Plugging of Inlet

Underflow Plugging
The underflow may become plugged for one of two reasons. Firstly, rope discharge may have gone unchecked for so long that plugging has resulted. Secondly, the opening may be too small (see set up) which results in a dry plug. Both cases should be rectified since they reduce total capacity and also increase the total feed concentration of solids to the other cones. There are other serious implications of plugged underflow.
Underflow Plugging (cont)
The wear on the overflow is very severe since all solids in the feed pass through and exit via the overflow. Cuttings are left in the system causing erosion to pumps, etc., and eventually are degraded to the point where they cannot be removed by mechanical means. It is essential that hydrocyclone installations are correctly designed and sized, otherwise overloading will reduce efficiency through roping or plugging. Sizing of installations and pumps is dealt within the next section.
Coarse Solids Passing On To Rig Pump, Filter Cake, Annulus. Feed Severe Wear Inside Vortex Finder
A Hydrocyclone operating with the underflow discharge opening plugged
Ring Of Severe Wear
Still Bed Of Very Coarse Material Plugged Area
Vacuum Break on Hydrocyclone Overflow

12 to 18 Vacuum Break
Discard Unders
Desilter Overs Equalizer Backflow Pump Suction
Hydrocyclone Feed
Pump
Motor
OPERATION
Troubleshooting 1. Low feed pressure. a. Pump incorrectly sized. b. Plugged pump suction - clean filter and settlement in pipe. c. Ensure no other equipment being fed by same pump. d. Air lock in suction.
2. No Underflow. a. Plugged apex. b. Aperture too small. c. Solids all below cut point. d. Vacuum on overflow.
OPERATION
Troubleshooting 3. Rope Discharge a. Solids overload b. Very high mud viscosity. c. Undersized apex. 4. Cone Discharge - Feed partially plugged. 5. Flooded Liquid Jet Discharge - Feed completely plugged
Pump Sizing Procedure

1. Calculate friction head. 2. Calculate total dynamic head. T.D.H. = Inlet head + Lift + Friction head 3. Determine pump size to be used from manufacturers tables. 4. Select pump curves and determine impeller size. Up to 1750 rpm estimate to nearest 1/4 5. Determine horsepower required for water: 6. Calculate horsepower required for maximum mud density. 7. Choose motor size as smallest standard size equal to or greater than minimum calculated.
Friction Loss in Pipe Fittings

Friction Loss in Pipe Fittings in Terms of Equivalent Feet of Straight Pipe Swing Gate check Actual valve valve Nom. inside Friction Close pipe diam. factor full 90 45 thru branch return full size d f open elbow elbow flow flow band open 1/2 0.622 0.027 0.41 1.55 0.83 1.04 3.11 2.59 5.18 3/4 0.824 0.025 0.55 2.06 1.1 1.37 4.12 3.43 8.86 1 1.049 0.023 0.7 2.62 1.4 1.75 5.25 4.07 8.74 1 1/4 1.38 0.022 0.92 3.45 1.84 2.3 6.9 5.75 11.5 1 1/2 1.61 0.021 1.07 4.03 2.15 2.68 8.05 6.71 13.4 2 2.067 0.019 1.38 5.17 2.76 3.45 10.3 8.61 17.2 2 1/2 2.469 0.018 1.65 6.17 3.29 4.12 12.3 10.3 20.6 3 3.068 0.018 2.04 7.67 4.09 5.11 15.3 12.8 25.5 4 4.026 0.017 2.68 10.1 5.37 5.71 20.1 16.8 33.6 5 5.047 0.016 3.36 12.6 6.73 8.41 25.2 21 42.1 6 6.065 0.015 4.04 15.2 8.09 10.1 30.3 25.3 50.5 8 7.981 0.014 5.32 20 10.6 13.3 39.9 33.3 33.3 10 10.02 0.014 6.68 25.1 13.4 16.7 50.1 41.8 41.8 12 11.938 0.013 7.96 29.8 15.9 19.9 59.7 49.7 49.7 14 13.124 0.013 8.75 32.8 17.5 21.8 65.6 54.7 54.7 16 15 0.013 10 37.5 20 25 75 62.5 62.5 18 16.876 0.012 16.9 42.2 22.5 28.1 84.4 70.3 70.3 20 18.814 0.012 12.5 47 25.1 31.4 94.1 78.4 78.4 24 22.628 0.012 15.1 56.6 30.2 37.7 113 94.3 94.3 30 28 0.011 18.7 70 37.3 46.7 140 117 36 34 0.011 22.7 85 45.3 56.7 170 142 42 40 0.01 26.7 100 53.3 66.7 200 167 48 46 0.01 30.7 115 51.3 76.7 230 192 1/2 TO 6 =100 24 TO 48 =50 Angle Globe valve valve full full open open 7.78 17.6 10.3 23.3 13.1 29.7 17.3 39.1 20.1 45.6 25.8 58.6 30.9 70 38.4 86.9 50.3 114 63.1 143 75.8 172 99.8 226 125 284 149 338 164 372 188 425 210 478 235 533 283 641 Butter- 90 welding Mitre bend fly elbow valve r/d=1 r/d=2 45 90
7.75 9.26 11.5 15.1 18.9 22.7 29.9 29.2 34.8 38.3 31.3 35.2 39.2 47.1
3.45 4.12 5.11 6.71 8.41 10.1 13.3 16.7 19.9 21.8 25 28.1 31.4 37.7 46.7 56.7 56.7 76.7
2 2.47 3.07 4.03 5.05 6.07 7.98 10 11.9 13.1 15 16.9 18.8 22.6 28 34 40 46
2.58 3.08 3.84 5.03 6.31 7.58 9.98 12.5 14.9 16.4 18.8 21.1 23.5 28.3 35 43 50 58
10.3 12.3 15.3 20.1 25.2 30.3 39.9 50.1 59.7 65.6 75 84.4 94.1 113 140 170 200 230
L/D
30
16
20
60
150
150
340
20
12
15
60
Example Desander at 1500gpm: Inlet head required Lift Pipe length Pipe length Fittings on Feed: Tee piece Butt. valve Qty = 1 = 2 = = = = 75 feet 10 feet 30 feet 10 feet Fittings on discharge: Qty 90 elbows = 2 45 = 1 Tee piece = 1 Butt. valves = 2
Maximum mud density = 1.6sg.

1. Friction head Discharge FH = = = = Suction FH = = = =
30 + 30.4 + 8.1 + 10.1 + 45.4 124.1 feet 6 pipe 124.1 x 0.015 1.9 feet 10 + 13.3 + 59.8 83.1 feet 8 pipe 83.1 x 0.014 1.2 feet
Total FH = 3.1 feet
2. Total Dynamic Head

T.D.H. = 75 + 10 + 3.1 + 88 feet
3. Pump size 4. Estimated impeller size 5. Horsepower for water
= Mission 8 x 6 11 at 1750rpm. = 10.75 = 47HP
6. Horsepower for maximum mud density. a) HP = 47 x 1.6 = 75.2 HP b) HP = gpm x feet head x 1.6 3960 x EFF = 1500 x 88 x 1.6 3960 x 0.7 = 76.2 HP
7. Motor size = 75 HP.
Recommended Pump Suction Submergence

Velocity, feet / second = GMP x 0.4 D2 (inches)
16 14 12
H Submergence in feet (min)
10 8 6 4 2 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Velocity in feet Per Second

Mudcleaner
Clean Mud
Mud In
Hydrocyclones (Desilters and/or Desanders)
Reject or Discard Solids
################## Screen
Screen Underflow Mud Return
Fine Mesh
Effect of Centrifugal Pump on Mud PSD

Cumulative Volume % Less than
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
After: 12% Greater than 100 Micrometers Before: 22% Greater than 100 Micrometers
10
100
1000
Particle Size (Micrometers)

Decanter Centrifuges
An Introduction to the Working Principles
Decanting Centrifuge
A machine for the continuous sedimentation of suspended solids from a liquid by the action of centrifugal force in an elongated rotating bowl. Continuous unloading of solids from the bowl is made possible by a conveyor which rotates in the same direction as the bowl but at a slightly different speed. PRINCIPLE COMPONENTS 1. Bowl (or drum) 2. Conveyor (or scroll) 3. Gearbox
4. Frame and collecting vessel

5. Feed inlet and distribution
Decanter Centrifuge
Working principle and nomenclature
Feed Rate
Method of Adjustment Change RPM
MOHNO NE80
Centrifugal Separation
Stokes Law
Setting efficiency
Vc =
Vc
Centrifugal settling velocity (m/s)
d 2(p - 1) rw 2 18 L
p 1
d
Particle diameter (mm)
L
Liquid viscosity (kg/ms)
rw2
Centripetal acceleration (m/s2)
Particle Liquid density density (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
Centrifugal Separation
Process parameters
Vc =
PARTICLE SIZE
Separation efficiency Separation efficiency
d 2(p - 1) rw2 18 L
FEED RATE
Separation efficiency
VISCOSITY
Small
Large
Low
High
Low
High
Regulating Possibilities
ROTOR SPEED DIFFERENTIAL SPEED POND DEPTH
Degree of solids recovery

Low High Low High Shallow Deep
% DS in underflow
Low
High
Low
High
Shallow
Deep
End of Solids Control
Pump Sizing Procedure

1. Calculate friction head. 2. Calculate total dynamic head. T.D.H. = Inlet head + Lift + Friction head 3. Determine pump size to be used from manufacturers tables. 4. Select pump curves and determine impeller size. Up to 1750 rpm estimate to nearest 1/4 5. Determine horsepower required for water: 6. Calculate horsepower required for maximum mud density. 7. Choose motor size as smallest standard size equal to or greater than minimum calculated.
Example Desander at 1500gpm: Inlet head required Lift Pipe length Pipe length Fittings on Feed: Tee piece Butt. valve Qty = 1 = 2 = = = = 75 feet 10 feet 30 feet 10 feet Fittings on discharge: Qty 90 elbows = 2 45 = 1 Tee piece = 1 Butt. valves = 2
Maximum mud density = 1.6sg.

1. Friction head Discharge FH = = = = Suction FH = = = =
30 + 30.4 + 8.1 + 10.1 + 45.4 124.1 feet 6 pipe 124.1 x 0.015 1.9 feet 10 + 13.3 + 59.8 83.1 feet 8 pipe 83.1 x 0.014 1.2 feet
Total FH = 3.1 feet
2. Total Dynamic Head

T.D.H. = 75 + 10 + 3.1 + 88 feet
3. Pump size 4. Estimated impeller size 5. Horsepower for water
= Mission 8 x 6 11 at 1750rpm. = 10.75 = 47HP
6. Horsepower for maximum mud density. a) HP = 47 x 1.6 = 75.2 HP b) HP = gpm x feet head x 1.6 3960 x EFF = 1500 x 88 x 1.6 3960 x 0.7 = 76.2 HP
7. Motor size = 75 HP.
API Standard for Evaluation of System Efficiency

Water Added VW Average Water fraction kw Interval Length L Bit Diameter D Washout W Average Drill Solids Concentration ks 1481 0.9 1600 12.25 0.1 0.06 bbls. percent feet inches percent percent
1. Calculate volume of mud built: Vm = Vw/Kw = 1645.56 bbls. 2. Calculate volume of drilled solids: Vc=D^2*W/1029*L 256.45 bbls. 3. Calculate the dilution volume required if no solids were removed: Vd = Vc/ks 4274.18 bbls. 4. Calculate the dilution factor: DR - Vm/Vd 0.384999 5. Solids removal performance: Et = (1-DF) 0.615001 61.50%

Cone Capacities Cone Size (inch) 4 6 8 10 12 Number of Cones Number of cones = Max. circ. rate(gpm) x 1.25 cone capacity (gpm) gpm 50 100 150 450 500
Feedhead Most manufacturers specify 75 feet of head at feed manifold. The pressure gauge reading should therefore be: p = = = 0.052 x feet of head x ppg 0.052 x 75 x ppg 4 x ppg
Hydrocyclones
Operating Pressure Pressure Gauge Reading (PSI)
Sizing No. of cones = circ. rate x 1.25 cone capacity e.g. for 4 desilter cones gpm 200 400 600 800 1000 m3/hour 45.4 90.8 136.3 181.7 227.1 cones 5 10 15 20 25
= 0.052 x feet of head x ppg

= 0.052 x 75 x ppg = 3.9 x ppg = 4 x ppg
Calculation of Differential Speed

1. Sunwheel Speed
Sunwheel speed (rpm) = B.drive motor speed x motor pulley diameter Sunwheel pulley diameter
e.g. 60 Hz
Motor speed Motor pulley Sunwheel pulley For high speed: Sunwheel speed = = = 1750/3500 rpm 125 mm 175 mm
3500 x 125 175 2500 rpm


2. Differential Speed
Differential speed (rpm) = Bowl speed - Sunwheel speed Gearbox ratio
Note: Sunwheel speed is negative for negative backdrive motor rotation
Negative rotation (left):

Differential speed (rpm) = Bowl speed + Sunwheel speed 57 Bowl speed - Sunwheel speed 57
Positive rotation (right):

Differential speed (rpm) =

2. Differential Speed (cont.)
Brake position:
Differential speed (rpm) = Bowl speed 57
e.g. 60Hz, 2 left, 2425 rpm bowl speed:

Differential speed = 2425-(-2500) 57 2425+2500 57 86 rpm
Principles of Centrifugal Separation

Conveying Capacity
All solids which are sedimented in the decanter have to be scrolled out by the conveyor. If not, they will flow out with the cleaned liquid contaminating it.
Theoretically the greatest amount of solids is conveyed when the solids reach the body of the conveyor. The smallest cross-sectional area, which the solids have to pass, is just before the solids outlet ports in the bowl. If this area is multiplied with the conveyor pitch the volume of discharged solids per relative turn of the conveyor is found. This figure has to be reduced with 5 - 15% (depending on the pitch, because solids are moving along a spiral line and not a straight line.)

Solids Conveying Capacity (cont.)
Steep cone decanters are used or soft sludge applications only. The amount and thickness of the sludge is basically determined by the level adjustment of the machine because the sludge is more a thick liquid than a sludge. Theoretically these applications could be run without conveyor, but as a fact the feed always contains impurities as fibers, sand etc. The conveyor is needed to remove this minor amount.
Sample Cloth Specifications

Screen Type and Mesh Count Square MG 40 x 40 60 x 60 80 x 80 100 x 100 150 x 150 Square TBC 54 x 54 80 x 80 94 x 94 120 x 120 165 x 165 Opening (um) Open Area (%) Conductance (kd/mm)
381 233 173 140 103
86.0 27.0 31.4 30.3 39.0
7.45 3.36 2.91 2.19 2.11
368 224 181 146 106
61.5 49.6 45.0 47.3 47.1
17.67 7.04 4.88 4.25 3.06

1. Removal of drilled solids at the first available opportunity with the minimum of mechanical handling. Solids Removal Efficiency:
Mass flow rate of solids removed x 100 Mass flow rate of solids in feed

2. Removal of drilled solids in as concentrated a form as possible.
Decanting Efficiency: (% Solids Discharge - % Solids Feed) x 100 100 - % Solids Feed

Conveying Capacity
All solids which are sedimented in the decanter have to be scrolled out by the conveyor. If not, they will flow out with the cleaned liquid contaminating it.
Theoretically the greatest amount of solids is conveyed when the solids reach the body of the conveyor. The smallest cross-sectional area, which the solids have to pass, is just before the solids outlet ports in the bowl. If this area is multiplied with the conveyor pitch the volume of discharged solids per relative turn of the conveyor is found. This figure has to be reduced with 5 - 15% (depending on the pitch, because solids are moving along a spiral line and not a straight line.)

Solids Conveying Capacity (cont.)
Steep cone decanters are used or soft sludge applications only. The amount and thickness of the sludge is basically determined by the level adjustment of the machine because the sludge is more a thick liquid than a sludge. Theoretically these applications could be run without conveyor, but as a fact the feed always contains impurities as fibers, sand etc. The conveyor is needed to remove this minor amount.

7.75 9.26 11.5 15.1 18.9 22.7 29.9 29.2 34.8 38.3 31.3 35.2 39.2 47.1
3.45 4.12 5.11 6.71 8.41 10.1 13.3 16.7 19.9 21.8 25 28.1 31.4 37.7 46.7 56.7 56.7 76.7
2 2.47 3.07 4.03 5.05 6.07 7.98 10 11.9 13.1 15 16.9 18.8 22.6 28 34 40 46
2.58 3.08 3.84 5.03 6.31 7.58 9.98 12.5 14.9 16.4 18.8 21.1 23.5 28.3 35 43 50 58
10.3 12.3 15.3 20.1 25.2 30.3 39.9 50.1 59.7 65.6 75 84.4 94.1 113 140 170 200 230
L/D
30
16
20
60
150
150
340
20
12
15
60

7.75 9.26 11.5 15.1 18.9 22.7 29.9 29.2 34.8 38.3 31.3 35.2 39.2 47.1
3.45 4.12 5.11 6.71 8.41 10.1 13.3 16.7 19.9 21.8 25 28.1 31.4 37.7 46.7 56.7 56.7 76.7
2 2.47 3.07 4.03 5.05 6.07 7.98 10 11.9 13.1 15 16.9 18.8 22.6 28 34 40 46
2.58 3.08 3.84 5.03 6.31 7.58 9.98 12.5 14.9 16.4 18.8 21.1 23.5 28.3 35 43 50 58
10.3 12.3 15.3 20.1 25.2 30.3 39.9 50.1 59.7 65.6 75 84.4 94.1 113 140 170 200 230
L/D
30
16
20
60
150
150
340
20
12
15
60

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03/TMP/ALFALAVAL/ST/11.

Drilling Fluid Treatment

The Fluid Process

Fluid pumped down

Drilling Fluid Carries drilled solids to the surface

Fluid to surface treatment Casing

Drill pipe Drilled solids

Solids Control Maintains desired fluid properties

Drilling Fluid Components

EMULSIFIERS AND SOLUBLE CHEMICALS

HYDRATABLE DRILL SOLIDS

INERT DRILL SOLIDS

Mud Solids (cont.)

Mud Solids (cont.)

Mud Solids (cont.)

Mud Solids (cont.)

Some of the specific properties bentonite provides are:

Mud Solids (cont.)

Density of Various Materials Used In Mud

Effect of Drilled Solids on Mud System

Amount of Drill Solids Generated

26 17 12 8 Hole size (inch)

API Mud Solids Size Classification

Category Coarse Intermediate Medium Fine Ultra-fine Colloidal

Examples 30 - 200 5 - 50 3 - 100 35 7

Talcum powder Cement dust Cosmetic powder Red blood corpuscles

DRILLED SOLIDS DEGRADION

A 20 micron drilled solid surface area = 2400 sq. microns

The same solid cut in half on each face

Another 1/4 cut on each face.

Surface Area Increase Due to Particle Degradation

MUD WEIGHT LB/GAL

PARTICLE DIAMETER - MICROMETERS

Effect of Barite Particle Size on Mud Flow Properties

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Barites in Each Barrel, lb.

Relative Effects of Shale Solids on Flow Properties Fresh Water Mud

PARTICLE DIAMETER - MICROMETERS

Effect of Drilled Solids on Rheology

Extra clays give large increase in viscosity

Extra clays give small increase in viscosity

Solids Control - The Key to Economy

Methods for Solids Control

Solids Control Equipment

Fluid from Hole Solids Discharge

Fluid to replace volume of solids discharged and fluid lost

Solids Removal with Displacement (Dump) / Dilution

Solids Control Equipment

Mud from Hole Solids Discharge

Mud to Hole Mud / Solids Discarded (Dumped)

Displacement Equation (cont.)

The major disadvantages of dilution are:

c) Increased maintenance costs for larger system.

DILUTION TO REDUCE SOLIDS BY 50%

10% Drill Solids

10% Discards Drill Solids

Comparison Between Dilution, Dilution with Displacement and Solids Removal

BBLS of Fluid Lost 0 6248 987 1480 1776

BBLS of Dilution 39480 19740 19740 9880 3960

Solids Control System Design Criteria

Solids Control System Design Criteria

Shale Shakers, Hydrocyclones and Mud Cleaners Shale Shakers