Single-Case and Small Sample Research

Chapter 14

Exceptions to Research Findings

Behavioral

science is probabilistic. findings uncover generalities and

There are always exceptions to any particular finding

Research

trends.
Exceptions

do not invalidate research findings, but should they be ignored?

Different Approaches

Nomothetic approach aims to establish general principles and broad generalizations that apply across individuals Idiographic approach aims to describe, analyze, and explain the behavior of individuals

Two Types of Single-Case Studies

Single-case experimental designs

Case studies

Single-Case Experimental Designs

Unit of analysis is not the experimental group, as it is in group designs, but rather the individual participant More than one participant may be studied, but their responses are analyzed individually Cannot analyze these data with inferential statistics such as t-tests and F-tests

Criticisms of Group Designs and Analyses

(1) Error Variance

Group design argument

Averaging across participants provides a more accurate estimate of a variables general effect Group designs allow us to estimate the amount of error variance in our data

BUT, group averages can be misleading!

Example: Learning Curves

An Individual Participant
60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Result of Averaging Across Participants

60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Criticisms of Group Designs and Analyses

Single-case argument

Error variance is partly created by averaging over participants in a group design (interparticipant variance) Researchers using group designs ignore the real error variance within the participant This intraparticipant variance is important to understand.

Criticisms of Group Designs and Analyses

(2) Generalizability Group design argument averaging the scores of several participants reduces the idiosyncratic responses of any one participant to show the general effect

Single-case argument averaging responses may not accurately describe any particular participants responses

Criticisms of Group Designs and Analyses

(3) Reliability

design argument reliability of findings is established by replicating studies Single-case argument reliability of findings should be established via:
Group

Intraparticipant replication replicating the effects of the independent variable with a single participant Interparticipant replication seeing whether the effects obtained for one participant generalize to other participants in the same study

Single Participant Designs

ABA Designs

ABA Design

Behavior is measured (Baseline period; A) Independent variable is introduced (B) Behavior is measured (A)

Can also replicate within an individual (ABABAB.)

Example of an ABAB Single-Case Design

Effects of a treatment (functional communication training with extinction) on a 19-year old male with autism and profound mental retardation
Destructive Responses Per Minute
Baseline Treatment Baseline Treatment

Sessions
Fisher, Thompson, Hagopian, Bowman, & Krug (2000)

Multiple-I Designs

Multiple-I designs single-case experimental designs that present varying nonzero levels of the independent variable

ABC (DEFG) Design

A - Baseline B - One level of the independent variable C - Another level of the independent variable

ABACA design inserts a baseline period between each introduction of a level of the independent variable

Multiple Baseline Designs

Two or more behaviors studied simultaneously

Obtain baseline on all behaviors Introduce an independent variable that is predicted to affect only one behavior

Allows the researcher to show that the independent variable is causing the target behavior to change and is not affecting the other behaviors

Data from Single-Participant Designs

Results are typically shown in graphs Graphic analysis researcher visually inspects the graph of the data for an individual participant to see if the independent variable had an effect

Criticized for having not having explicit criteria for deciding when an effect is significant

Uses of Single-Case Experimental Designs

Operant

conditioning; schedules of reinforcement and punishment

processes; effects of drugs

Psychophysiological

Behavior

modification techniques for changing problem behaviors based on operant conditioning

Critique of Single-Participant Designs

Effects are not necessarily generalizable

Individual participants may not be representative of the population

Neglect of interactions among variables Ethical issues

Example: Do you withdraw an effective treatment from a particularly troubled client in a reversal design?

Case Study Research

Case study a detailed study of a single individual, group, or event May use information from numerous sources: observation, interviews, questionnaires, news reports, and archival records All information is compiled into a narrative description

Example: Phineas Gage

Uses of the Case Study Method

Source

of Insight and Ideas rare phenomena

Describe

Psychobiography

applying concepts and theories from psychology in an effort to understand famous people
anecdotes (e.g.: George Vaillant)

Illustrative

A Case Study of Hitler

"The drama and tragedy of Hitler's life are the projection onto the world of his own inner conflicts and his attempts to solve them. The split in Hitler's personality seems clearly to be due to his identification both with is mother, whom he passionately loved, and with his father, whom he hated and feared... The inner conflict is projected into the world where Germany comes to represent the mother, and the Jew and--for a time--the Austrian State, the father." (Vernon, 1942)

Limitations of the Case Study Approach

Failure to control extraneous variables

Alternative explanations can not be ruled out

Observer biases

All observations may be conducted by a single researcher No way of determining reliability and validity of these observations