2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Why do we need the OSI Model?

To address the problem of networks increasing in size and in number, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched many network schemes and recognized that there was a need to create a network model that would help network builders implement networks that could communicate and work together and therefore, released the OSI reference model in 1984.

Dont Get Confused.

ISO - International Organization for Standardization OSI - Open System Interconnection

IOS - Internetwork Operating System

The ISO created the OSI to make the IOS more efficient. The ISO acronym is correct as shown. To avoid confusion, some people say International Standard Organization.
4

The OSI Reference Model

7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical

The OSI Model will be used throughout your entire networking career!

Memorize it!

Layer 7 - The Application Layer

7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical

This layer deal with networking applications. Examples: Email Web browsers PDU - User Data

Layer 6 - The Presentation Layer

7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical

This layer is responsible for presenting the data in the required format which may include: Encryption Compression PDU - Formatted Data

Layer 5 - The Session Layer

7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical

This layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between two communicating hosts.

Example: Client Software ( Used for logging in)

PDU - Formatted Data
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Layer 4 - The Transport Layer

7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical

This layer breaks up the data from the sending host and then reassembles it in the receiver.

It also is used to insure reliable data transport across the network.

PDU - Segments
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Layer 3 - The Network Layer

7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical

Sometimes referred to as the Cisco Layer. Makes Best Path Determination decisions based on logical addresses (usually IP addresses).

PDU - Packets

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Layer 2 - The Data Link Layer

7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical

This layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link. Makes decisions based on physical addresses (usually MAC addresses).

PDU - Frames

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Layer 1 - The Physical Layer

7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical

This is the physical media through which the data, represented as electronic signals, is sent from the source host to the destination host. Examples: CAT5 (what we have) Coaxial (like cable TV) Fiber optic

PDU - Bits

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Host Layers
7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical

These layers only exist in the source and destination host computers.

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Media Layers
7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session 4 Transport 3 Network 2 Data Link 1 Physical These layers manage the information out in the LAN or WAN between the source and destination hosts.
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The OSI Layers Communications

15

Encapsulation Process

16

Data Flow Through a Network

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18

LAN Physical Layer

Various symbols are used to represent media types. The function of media is to carry a flow of information through a LAN.Networking media are considered Layer 1, or physical layer, components of LANs. Each media has advantages and disadvantages. Some of the advantage or disadvantage comparisons concern: Cable length Cost Ease of installation Susceptibility to interference Coaxial cable, optical fiber, and even free space can carry network signals. However, the principal medium that will be studied is Category 5 unshielded twistedpair cable (Cat 5 UTP)

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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

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UTP Implementation
EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector for UTP cable.

The RJ-45 transparent end connector shows eight colored wires.

Four of the wires carry the voltage and are considered tip (T1 through T4). The other four wires are grounded and are called ring (R1 through R4). The wires in the first pair in a cable or a connector are designated as T1 & R1

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Connection Media
The registered jack (RJ-45) connector and jack are the most common. In some cases the type of connector on a network interface card (NIC) does not match the media that it needs to connect to. The attachment unit interface (AUI) connector allows different media to connect when used with the appropriate transceiver. A transceiver is an adapter that converts one type of connection to another.
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Ethernet Standards
The Ethernet standard specifies that each of the pins on an RJ-45 connector have a particular purpose. A NIC transmits signals on pins 1 & 2, and it receives signals on pins 3 & 6.

23

Remember
A straight-thru cable has T568B on both ends. A crossover (or cross-connect) cable has T568B on one end and T568A on the other. A console cable had T568B on one end and reverse T568B on the other, which is why it is also called a rollover cable.

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Straight-Thru or Crossover
Use straight-through cables for the following cabling: Switch to router Switch to PC or server Hub to PC or server Use crossover cables for the following cabling: Switch to switch Switch to hub Hub to hub Router to router PC to PC Router to PC 25

Sources of Noise on Copper Media

Noise is any electrical energy on the transmission cable that makes it difficult for a receiver to interpret the data sent from the transmitter. TIA/EIA-568-B certification of a cable now requires testing for a variety of types of noise.Twisted-pair cable is designed to take advantage of the effects of crosstalk in order to minimize noise. In twisted-pair cable, a pair of wires is used to transmit one signal.The wire pair is twisted so that each wire experiences similar crosstalk. Because a noise signal on one wire will appear identically on the other wire, this noise be easily detected and filtered at receiver.Twisting one pair of wires in a cable also helps to reduce crosstalk of data or noise signals from adjacent wires.

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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

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Coaxial Cable

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Fiber Optic Cable

29

Fiber Optic Connectors

Connectors are attached to the fiber ends so that the fibers can be connected to the ports on the transmitter and receiver. The type of connector most commonly used with multimode fiber is the Subscriber Connector (SC connector).On single-mode fiber, the Straight Tip (ST) connector is frequently used

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Fiber Optic Patch Panels

Fiber patch panels similar to the patch panels used with copper cable.

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WAN Serial Connection Options

32

Serial Implementation of DTE & DCE

When connecting directly to a service provider, or to a device such as a CSU/DSU that will perform signal clocking, the router is a DTE and needs a DTE serial cable. This is typically the case for routers.

33

Back-to-Back Serial Connection

When performing a back-to-back router scenario in a test environment, one of the routers will be a DTE and the other will be a DCE.
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MAC Address
MAC address is 48 bits in length and expressed as twelve hexadecimal digits.MAC addresses are sometimes referred to as burned-in addresses (BIA) because they are burned into read-only memory (ROM) and are copied into random-access memory (RAM) when the NIC initializes.

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Bridge
Bridges are Data Link layer devices.Connected host addresses are learned and stored on a MAC address table.Each bridge port has a unique MAC address

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Bridges

37

Bridging Graphic

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Switch
Switches are Data Link layer devices.

Each Switch port has a unique MAC address.

Connected host MAC addresses are learned and stored on a MAC address table.
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Full Duplex
Another capability emerges when only two nodes are connected. In a network that uses twisted-pair cabling, one pair is used to carry the transmitted signal from one node to the other node. A separate pair is used for the return or received signal. It is possible for signals to pass through both pairs simultaneously. The capability of communication in both directions at once is known as full duplex.

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Switches MAC Tables

41

Switches Parallel Communication

42

Microsegmentation
A switch is simply a bridge with many ports. When only one node is connected to a switch port, the collision domain on the shared media contains only two nodes. The two nodes in this small segment, or collision domain, consist of the switch port and the host connected to it. These small physical segments are called micro segments.

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Peer-to-Peer Network
In a peer-to-peer network, networked computers act as equal partners, or peers. As peers, each computer can take on the client function or the server function. At one time, computer A may make a request for a file from computer B, which responds by serving the file to computer A. Computer A functions as client, while B functions as the server. At a later time, computers A and B can reverse roles. In a peer-to-peer network, individual users control their own resources. Peer-topeer networks are relatively easy to install and operate. As networks grow, peer-topeer relationships become increasingly difficult to coordinate.

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Client/Server Network
In a client/server arrangement, network services are located on a dedicated computer called a server. The server responds to the requests of clients. The server is a central computer that is continuously available to respond to requests from clients for file, print, application, and other services. Most network operating systems adopt the form of a client/server relationship.

45

46

Network and Host Addressing

Using the IP address of the destination network, a router can deliver a packet to the correct network.

When the packet arrives at a router connected to the destination network, the router uses the IP address to locate the particular computer connected to that network.
Accordingly, every IP address has two parts.
47

Network Layer Communication Path

A router forwards packets from the originating network to the destination network using the IP protocol. The packets must include an identifier for both the source and destination networks.

48

Internet Addresses
IP Addressing is a hierarchical structure.An IP address combines two identifiers into one number. This number must be a unique number, because duplicate addresses would make routing impossible.The first part identifies the system's network address.The second part, called the host part, identifies which particular machine it is on the network.

49

IP Address Classes
IP addresses are divided into classes to define the large, medium, and small networks.

Class A addresses are assigned to larger networks. Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks, & Class C for small networks.

50

Identifying Address Classes

51

Address Class Prefixes

To accommodate different size networks and aid in classifying these networks, IP addresses are divided into groups called classes.This is classful addressing.

52

Network and Host Division

Each complete 32-bit IP address is broken down into a network part and a host part. A bit or bit sequence at the start of each address determines the class of the address. There are 5 IP address classes.

53

Class A Addresses
The Class A address was designed to support extremely large networks, with more than 16 million host addresses available. Class A IP addresses use only the first octet to indicate the network address. The remaining three octets provide for host addresses.

54

Class B Addresses
The Class B address was designed to support the needs of moderate to large-sized networks.A Class B IP address uses the first two of the four octets to indicate the network address. The other two octets specify host addresses.

55

Class C Addresses
The Class C address space is the most commonly used of the original address classes.This address space was intended to support small networks with a maximum of 254 hosts.

56

Class D Addresses
The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP address. A multicast address is a unique network address that directs packets with that destination address to predefined groups of IP addresses. Therefore, a single station can simultaneously transmit a single stream of data to multiple recipients.

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Class E Addresses
A Class E address has been defined. However, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) reserves these addresses for its own research. Therefore, no Class E addresses have been released for use in the Internet.

58

IP Address Ranges
The graphic below shows the IP address range of the first octet both in decimal and binary for each IP address class.

59

IPv4
As early as 1992, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) identified two specific concerns: Exhaustion of the remaining, unassigned IPv4 network addresses and the increase in the size of Internet routing tables. Over the past two decades, numerous extensions to IPv4 have been developed. Two of the more important of these are subnet masks and classless interdomain routing (CIDR).

60

Finding the Network Address with ANDing

By ANDing the Host address of 192.168.10.2 with 255.255.255.0 (its network mask) we obtain the network address of 192.168.10.0

61

Network Address

62

Broadcast Address

63

Network/Broadcast Addresses at the Binary Level

An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit positions is reserved for the network address, which identifies the network. An IP address that has binary 1s in all host bit positions is reserved for the broadcast address, which is used to send data to all hosts on the network. Here are some examples: Class A B C Network Address 100.0.0.0 150.75.0.0 200.100.50.0 Broadcast Address 100.255.255.255 150.75.255.255 200.100.50.255
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Introduction to Subnetting
Subnetting a network means to use the subnet mask to divide the network and break a large network up into smaller, more efficient and manageable segments, or subnets. With subnetting, the network is not limited to the default Class A, B, or C network masks and there is more flexibility in the network design. Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a subnet field and a host field.The ability to decide how to divide the original host portion into the new subnet and host fields provides addressing flexibility for the network administrator.

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The 32-Bit Binary IP Address

66

Numbers That Show Up In Subnet Masks (Memorize Them!)

67

Addressing with Subnetworks

68

Obtaining an Internet Address

69

Static Assignment of an IP Address

Static assignment works best on small networks. The administrator manually assigns and tracks IP addresses for each computer, printer, or server on the intranet.

Network printers, application servers, and routers should be assigned static IP addresses.

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ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

Host A
SIEMENS NIXDORF

ARP Request - Broadcast to all hosts What is the hardware address for IP address 128.0.10.4?

ARP Reply
SIEMENS NIXDORF SIEMENS NIXDORF

Host B IP Address: 128.0.10.4 HW Address: 080020021545

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Fig. 32 How does ARP work? (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 47)

72
Fig. 33 The ARP command (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 47)

1 Network = 1 Broadcast Domain

host B would reply

Broadcast: ARP request

2 Networks = 2 Broadcast Domains

Router

no one would reply

Broadcast: ARP request

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Fig. 34 Proxy-ARP concept (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 49)

B A B

Router R I take care, to forward IP packets to B

Broadcast Message to all: If your IP address matches B then please tell me your Ethernet address

Yes, I know the destination network, let me give you my Ethernet address

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RARP
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) associates a known MAC addresses with an IP addresses. A network device, such as a diskless workstation, might know its MAC address but not its IP address. RARP allows the device to make a request to learn its IP address. Devices using RARP require that a RARP server be present on the network to answer RARP requests.

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DHCP
Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) is the successor to BOOTP. Unlike BOOTP, DHCP allows a host to obtain an IP address dynamically without the network administrator having to set up an individual profile for each device. All that is required when using DHCP is a defined range of IP addresses on a DHCP server.As hosts come online, they contact the DHCP server and request an address. The DHCP server chooses an address and leases it to that host. With DHCP, the entire network configuration of a computer can be obtained in one message. This includes all of the data supplied by the BOOTP message, plus a leased IP address and a subnet mask. The major advantage that DHCP has over BOOTP is that it allows users to be mobile.
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