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AN INTRODUCTION
2. The enormity of this responsibility is so high, that it has always been difficult for banking industry to pressure the objective of profit maximization as jealously as the other industries
2. Pressure from liability side of the balance sheet, or liberalization of the financial system has tremendous influence on the expanse & depth of the market
Competition
Bank as a lender faces:
Emergence of institutions like mutual funds, corporate with high credit worthiness can access:
Bonds, commercial paper, derivative financial products Accessibility itself creates a competitive edge for them to bargain for funds from the banks & FIs often at a lower rate than PLRs
Competition (contd.)
From the liability side of the banks balance sheet:
A number of savings & investment institutions have come up, with a large range of financial instruments as alternatives to bank deposits Competition is so intense, that interest rates ceiling being almost removed
Due to all these factors commercial banking is now moving down to 3rd position with investment banking & asset management moving up
The reward in off-balance sheet transactions is high but they are not risk free
The Basle Committee have brought them within the framework of capital adequacy norms:
decision parameters for direct lending decisions should be the same as off-balance sheet items, because of similar types of risk exposure
Raising domestic saving rates not successful Attempts to induce savings by raising domestic interest rates not very successful in developing countries like India, where income distribution is skewed
This aspect often missed by banks of newly liberalized developing countries, where interest rate ceilings have been removed, like India:
No significant increase in deposits Rising government expenditure, leading to shortage of money supply, explains the need for mad rush
Change in outlook
Liquidity itself has undergone an outlook change:
Traditional means of satisfaction of liquidity claims was a cost in the form of idle balances, & constrained economic allocation of resources Now it is access to liquidity that matters more than liquidity per se
Liquidity (contd.)
With liquidity mostly taken care of by providing access to it, every economic entity (household or corporate) now has the opportunity to become investment manager:
o Every company now has full fledged treasury department organized as a profit centre
Changing roles
When corporate are thus becoming banks, banks themselves are becoming corporate, motive force being changing concept of liquidity:
Liberalization has helped the emergence of increasingly active wholesale fund market, both call money & certificates of deposits markets are almost completely deregulated & broadened to include new players Most often than not liability selling gains precedence over deposit mobilization
SECURITIZATION
On the asset side of the balance sheet, banks are attempting to liquefy their loan portfolios through a process now universally known as securitization. The concept in practice in different markets:
In US, important rating agencies like Moody & Standard & Poors are rating bank loans to pave the way for the emergence of an effective loan market
In India
In India, non-banking financial companies first started the process of securitization Till recently, unlike bonds & equities, loans generally have not been traded, except to a limited extent, through participatory certificates & syndication The age-old concept of relationship banking that demands a bank to hold the loan on its books is being replaced gradually by fee-based banking, because of:
o the sheer pressure of competition, & o the need to keep the balance sheet in a liquid form in an uncertain financial environment
Securitization is the process of removing the hitherto untraded loan assets from a banks balance sheet, packaging them in a convenient form & selling the packaged securities in a financial market
RBIS perspective
RBI defines securitization as a process by which assets are sold to a bankruptcy remote special purpose vehicle (SPV) in return for an immediate cash payment
Securitization thus follows a 2-stage process:
o Stage I: there is a sale of single asset or pooling , & the sale of a pool of assets to a bankruptcy remote SPV in return for an immediate cash payment o Stage II: there is a repackaging & selling of security interests representing claims on incoming cash flows from the asset or pool of assets to third party investors by issuance of tradable debt securities
2008 -09 financial crisis, originating in US, is ascribed to securitization of mostly bad loans through esoteric instruments & palming them off to unsuspecting buyers of large banks
RBI s Guidelines
1. A bank, on an ongoing basis, have a comprehensive understanding of the risk characteristics of its individual securitization exposures
S E C U R I T I Z AT I O N I S T O M A K E BALANCE SHEET LIQUID BY BRINGING THE LOAN ASSETS TO THE MARKET PLACE
STRATEGIC PLANNING
Strategies of a banking organization must undergo radical changes to attain the following broad objectives:
1. Maximizing profits both in the short- and longterm 2. Maintaining an adequate capital base for growth & regulatory requirements 3. Conducting the lending function within a managed risk framework
Regarded as evil
The history of banking shows that banking organizations are regarded as something more than necessary evil; they are always ready to substitute profit for sound banking, which brings to naught all measures of monetary & fiscal control
THE PARADIGM THAT BANKING SERVICES ARE NOTHING BUT PRODUCTS, WHICH ARE SOLD FOR MAKING PROFITS, MAY STILL TAKE A LONG TIME TO BE ESTABLISHED
In 1993 -95, Rs 10, 987.12 crore of recapitalization funds were pumped into the nationalized banking sector
Deregulation
Financial sector reforms with the laudable objectives of deregulation of interest rates, dismantling of directed credit, reforming the banking system, & improving the functioning of capital market, were introduced in mid1991 to usher in a second banking revolution
CAPITAL PLANNING
The function of capital in banks & other financial institutions is claimed to be substantially different from that in most other business enterprises:
In manufacturing concerns, the capital fund is used primarily for acquisition of fixed assets, in banking primarily to provide guarantee
Its usage in the acquisition of fixed assets is hardly more than 15% (never exceeds 20%)
Capital forms a guarantee function in other enterprises too, but not so predominantly
Basle Committee holds that besides deposits, a bank has to have the confidence of the supervisory authorities about the: general health of the bank to withstand shocks of:
o Borrowers , that the bank would be in a position to meet their credit needs in both bad times & good, & o General Public, that the most important institution of the economy is functioning
The confidence is ascribed to the capital funds of banks & financial institutions:
o With debt equity ratio of more than 10, how much confidence capital can provide is doubtful
What should be the adequate amount of capital? There is an inverse relationship between a banks capital & its earning capacity given by earning leverage (EL): EL = Amount of assets in the bank
Amount of capital Example: Suppose the bank has a capital to asset ratio of 6% at present, which seeks to raise to 8% by issue of shares, its earning leverage will immediately fall by 23.52 %, seen from table below Table 1.0: Efects of New Capital Issue on Earning Capacity
Capital Issues Before New Issues Assets 100 Deposits 94 Capital 6 Earning leverage 16.67 After New Issues Percentage change 102 +2 94 0 8 +33.33 12.75 -- 23.52
In India, PSBs are now allowed to raise capital from the market, as long as govt. holds controlling shares, and except a few all PSBs have gone public
Retailed earnings
History of banks is indicative that bank capital has been built around retained earnings
o Internally funded capital is always superior to selling shares
o But, at the same time, banking organizations must ready itself for access to capital market in an environment of market propelled growth & competition
Adequate capital
From the viewpoint of shareholders, it is just as important not to have too much capital, as it is essential, from the viewpoint of safety & growth, to have enough:
If the policy is to keep the bank under tight control, minimum dividend & maximum retention could be the possible choice
Payout ratio
In India, a middle-of-the-road policy is being advocated for ownership of bank shares
After the Basle Accord, a lower payout ratio of 30 - 40 % (earlier 50%), with a minimum benchmark of 20%, is being thought to be reasonable
GROWTH MODEL
Growth (G) of a banking organization depends upon the following relation: o G = Average Assets X Net Income X (1 dividend payout) Average Capital Average Assets Although the model can ordinarily be reduced to: o Net Income X (1 Dividend payout ratio) Average Capital The purpose of showing it in the extended form is to draw attention to the 3 ratios separately for the purpose of evaluating their properties Ist ratio on the right hand side: capital requirements for asset growth is acting as a constraint: o Numerator & denominator so related that maneuverability of this ratio is very difficult
Next 2 - ratios
Next 2-ratios: have a greater scope of maneuverability, because the variables that have gone into making these ratios are capable of being handled independent of each other :
Net income can be increased by placing the lendable assets in an appropriately higher risk-return category & funding be low-cost deposits Managerial discretion is larger in case of dividend pay-out ratios
An example
Growth variables of a bank (Rs crores)
Assets : Rs 11250 Capital: Rs 900 (or 8 %) Net Income (PAT): Rs 100 Dividend pay-out ratio = 35% The bank can grow at:
o G = 11250/900 X 100/11250 X (1 -.35) o Or, .0722, or 7.22%
Given a capital adequacy norm of 8%, a return on assets of 100/11250 = 0.89%. A dividend payout ratio of 35%, the bank can grow only at 7.22%
If bank desires to grow at required capital growth To grow @ required rate of 8 % instead of 7.22%:
It has to increase R, or Reduce D Or, adjust by a trade-off
Setting the growth rate (G) @ 8 %, & keeping D constant, required R will be as follows:
.08 = R/.08 X (1 0.35) Or, 0.65 R = 0.08 X 0.08 Or, R = 0.00985 or, 0.985%
Reduce D
Now, keeping R constant & setting the growth rate @ 8% as before, required change in D will be:
.08 = 0.0089/.08 X (1 D) Or, 0.0089b (1 D) = 0.08 X 0.08 Or, (1 D) = 0.72 Or, D = 0.28
Thus bank has to reduce from 35% payout to 28% to achieve growth rate of 8%
Retained earnings
Finally, multiplying R with (1 D) gives rise to a new ratio, namely retained earnings as % of assets, which we denote as E In its shortest form, equation (1.2) will now look like: G = E/C ---- (1.3)
E can be derived as
E = (Net Income)/ (Average Assets) X (1 D) Or, E = 100/ 11250 X (1 0.35) Or, E = 0.005777 Or, E = 0.578 % Now C remaining the same @ 8%, the growth rate G will be: G = 0.005777/ 0.08 = 0.07222 or 7.22%