Fundamentals of Seismic Data Interpretation & Evaluation

GERMI, Gandhinagar
10th. 14th. March 2014 N.C.Nanda

I. Seismic wave propagation and rock-fluid properties (rock physics)

Seismic wave & propagation mechanism

Seismic an elastic wave passing through rocks. Under pressure, rock particles get displaced , transferring energy to adjoining ones . Wave created and propagates in the rock through particle motions.

Wave propagation mechanism

Particles at rest Particles' displacement

Push & pull at the edge leads to particle compression ( maximum displacement) & then back to normal position

Seismic body wave : P & S-waves

Seismic wave travels in rocks as longitudinal (P) and transverse (S) waves. Particle motions of a compressional (P) wave along the direction of propagation. Particle motions of a Shear (S) wave orthogonal to propagation direction.

Particle motion & wave propagation direction

P-wave S-wave

P-wave particle motion along propagation

S-wave particle motion orthogonal to propagation

Seismic wave particle motion (velocity) :

Particle motion large in soft rocks (clay) & small in hard rocks (granite). Geophones measure particle velocity (amplitude) on land and acoustic pressure in offshore

Wave propagation : energy loss Wave dissipates energy during propagation. Absorption Scattering Transmission Spherical divergence

Wave propagation loss : absorption Anelastic frictional loss due to motion between particles at point of contacts during travel. Frictional loss in fluids small but can be significant, in partially saturated rocks caused by pores, cracks, fluid flow & viscosity.

Propagation Loss : absorption (contd .)

Absorption frequency selective ; more for higher frequencies ( acts as hi-cut filter). Poor sorting and (open) fractures in rocks likely to have greater absorption loss. Uncemented rocks & angular contacts cause more friction than in cemented/ fine grained rocks.

Propagation loss : absorption ( contd)

Absorption affects seismic waveforms Amplitude diminishes due to loss of frequency . Broadening of pulse due to high frequency loss. Frequency lowering affects seismic resolution .

Absorption effect broadening of pulse

spike input

Amplitude

Propagation Loss : scattering Scattering loss (elastic) depends on wave length and linked to dispersion -velocity varying with frequency Energy dissipated by dispersal caused by irregular small objects & heterogeneity in rocks. Geologic features like sediment slumps, channel cuts, pinnacle reefs & faults scatter more energy.

Propagation Loss : scattering (contd)

Scattering (elastic ) & absorption ( inelastic) losses together often referred to as attenuation. Attenuation causes group & phase velocity in rocks.

Attenuation causes Group & Phase velocity

Propagation loss : transmission Loss in energy transmitted to a medium after reflection ; depends on number of reflectors. Interfaces with high contrast ( shale & anhydrite) reflect more & so transmit less energy downward. Number of (sand-shale) beds with small contrasts but alternating polarity( Rc ) causes large losses .

Propagation Loss : Transmission ( contd)

Transmission losses , unlike in attenuation , diminish amplitudes of all frequencies affecting wave shapes. Strong reflectors do not always cause poor imaging of deeper reflectors below a misconception.

Good seismic imaging below a strong limestone reflector

Limestone

progradations

Propagation loss : spherical divergence Spreading of spherical waves with distance ( time) from source results in energy dissipation. Loss depends on overburden velocity. (Aka) geometrical loss ; increases with depth due to velocity increase causing divergence of ray paths.

Spherical divergence loss with distance

Propagation losses : geological significance Absorption loss indicates type & texture of rocks. High frictional loss in unconsolidated, fractured, and poorly sorted rocks with angular grain contacts .
Shadow zones below gas reservoirs may be caused by nature of the rock rather by gas.

Propagation losses geological significance(con..) Scattering loss indicates inhomogeneity in reservoir . e.g., rapid facies changes in continental depositional
environment leads to more loss. poor /no reflections linked to scattering in highly tectonised areas ; e.g., mlanges in subduction zones.

Propagation losses geological significance(con.) Transmission loss linked to no. & type of Rc contrasts . Large loss indicates multiple layers of thin reservoirs with intervening shales as cyclothems in near-shore
and deltaic settings.

Propagation losses : limitations Propagation losses usually difficult to detect & quantify except under favorable shallow settings . Attenuation hard to distinguish from transmission loss as both cause similar changes in waveform .

Seismic wave properties: amplitude & velocity Amplitude - measure of particle motion (velocity) Particle velocity signifies size of seismic disturbance ( very small, of the order of 10-6 m/s.) Wave velocity - the speed of seismic disturbance traveling through the rock. ( large, in order of km/s.)

Rock physics & seismic properties :

Seismic properties , amplitude and velocity depend on the primordial rock properties :

Elasticity & bulk density .

Rock-fluid properties & seismic: (con) Seismic velocity V= (E/), where E & are elasticity and bulk density of a rock . Amplitude proportional to contrasts in rock impedance (Vx ).

Rock-fluid properties : (rock physics) Rock defined by matrix, pores & fluid saturant. Properties of each rock segment influence elasticity and density in some way or other. Rock- fluid properties linked to elasticity & density, makes it easier to comprehend seismic responses.

Rock Physics : elasticity Elasticity of a rock - the resistance offered to stress.

bulk modulus (k ) and the shear modulus ( ) . P- velocity mainly depends on K , whereas
Principal elastic moduli controlling seismic velocity determines the shear wave velocity . S-waves do not travel in fluid which has little rigidity .

Rock Physics : elasticity (contd) -

Higher the stress modulii , greater the seismic velocity.

Hard rock difficult to compress because of high bulk modulus (stiffness) & shows high P-velocity, Soft rock having lower K has large compressibility (compliance) & exhibits lower P-velocity.

In geological sense, elasticity , a measure of rock hardness .

Rock Physics : bulk density Bulk density includes the density of the rock matrix & the density of the fluids in pore s. Density mostly increases with depth, due to loss in volume because of compaction. Compaction squeezes out water from pores as rocks get buried under layers of overburden .

Rock Physics : bulk density (contd) Compact rocks show higher & under-compacted (over-pressured) rocks show lower density . Compaction in clay larger than in sand & customary with increasing depth (shale compaction curve). Compaction inelastic in clay ; elastic (partly) in sand .

Density variation with depth in normal & over-pressured section

Density

sealing occurred at this depth Z

Depth

over-pressured zone

Rock Physics : bulk density (contd) Compact rocks despite high density show larger velocities (under-compacted rocks - low velocity ) Increased elasticity (stiffness) at depth plays larger role than density in deciding the velocity. Velocity and bulk density are not uniquely related, but empirical equations ( Garderner) exist . Density determination from seismic a difficult task.

Rock Physics : porosity & pore shape Porosity the void space in rock that decreases density & more so the elasticity of the rock. Type of porosity & pore shape important. cavernous porosity - open, irregular pores . intergranular porosity - void between grains. fracture porosity - cracks as pore space.

Rock Physics : porosity & pore shape ( contd..) Porosity decreases with depth due to compaction . Dense rocks (well compacted) have poor porosity. Increasing porosity lowers seismic velocity. Velocity affected by pore shapes and geometry as these determine elasticity of rock ; i.e. , flat shaped pores in a reservoir show relatively lower velocity.

Density & porosity variation with depth

0
0

Porosity

1.0

3.5

Depth
2.5

Bulk density

1.0

Rock Physics : texture

Texture controls elasticity & density of a rock. Includes grain sizes, roundness, sorting etc., of rock . Large grain sized & compacted sands have generally higher velocity (elasticity) and density (impedance ). Unconsolidated sands & angular grains show low velocity

Rock Physics : fractures & crack geometry Fractures and cracks (open) reduce rock stiffness & significantly lower velocity and impedance of rocks. Number, size & shape of fractures control elasticity (compliance) of a rock, affecting seismic properties Fractures create seismic anisotropy in rocks.

Rock Physics : fractures & crack geometry (contd.) Significant velocity lowering need not always imply good reservoir porosity or permeability A great number of micro fractures cause a larger decrease in velocity than caused by same volume of pore space , realized by a few large cracks/ voids.

Rock Physics : pore fluid & saturation Fluids in pores affect seismic properties depending on fluid type, compressibility & density. Fully water saturated rocks exhibit higher velocity and impedance , as water is incompressible (stiff). Oil saturation shows marginally lower velocity than that of water-saturated rocks.

Rock Physics : pore fluid & saturation (contd)

Gas (free) in pores increases compressibility & significantly lowers density & velocity even if present in small quantity . The effect is noticeably large at shallow depths. Overall effect of fluid-saturation on seismic velocity gets lesser with increasing depth.

Velocity curves for fluid saturations with depth

Depth

Rock Physics : viscosity Rocks exhibit increasing elasticity & density with increase in viscosity of oil. Heavy oil has large bulk modulus and tend to act as semisolids in the rock pores and exhibit relatively higher seismic properties.

Rock Physics : pressure Rocks at depth under two opposing stresses-downward overburden pressure & the upward pore pressure. The overburden pressure tends to close the pore space & the fluid pressure tries to retain the voids. Net of two pressures, is effective (differential) pressure which influences seismic properties.

Rock Physics : pressure (contd)

During compaction squeezed water escapes to surface & formation shows normal hydrostatic pressure. In normally-pressured sections , effective pressure increases with depth & raises elasticity & density of the rock, resulting in increase in seismic properties. Velocity increase with depth marked more at shallow depths in lower pressure regimes.

Rock Physics : Pressure (contd)

If water during compaction cannot escape due to seal it is forced to stay within the formation and raises pore pressure to higher than hydrostatic . The formation under-compacted & over-pressured . Over-pressured rocks cause lower effective pressure, lowering elasticity and density & seismic properties.

Rock Physics : pressure (contd)

Decrease in density and velocity typically tends to remain constant in the over-pressured zone even with increase in depth of burial . Overburden thickening does not affect the seismic properties in over-pressured zone as high fluid pressure uphold the increasing pressure with depth.

Velocity curves for water saturated rocks in normal & over pressured sections

Rock Physics: temperature Temperature changes viscosity & elasticity of pore oil saturants ,affecting seismic properties. Raising temperature of heavy oil, especially in unconsolidated sands(tar sands), shows marked decrease in seismic properties due to significant increase in fluid compressibility caused by heat.

Rock Physics & seismic properties - synopsis

Properties of matrix , pore & fluid in a rock influence elasticity & density . Individual rock & fluid properties mutually interact to reinforce /negate effects to produce seismic response. Crucial properties like the permeability & bulk density difficult to determine from seismic.

Rock Physics & seismic synopsis (contd)

Rock properties affecting P-seismic may be related to geological significance as: Elasticity ... Hardness of rock Porosity ... Depositional energy Density .. Compaction, depth Pore geometry Weathered/fractured (open) Effective pressure .. Hydrostatic / over pressured