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1
+ o
2
2
) = o
1
H(
1
) + o
2
H(
2
)
That is:
1) the output is proportional to the input
2) the principle of superposition holds
Linear Example: y = H(x) = c x
y = c(x
1
+x
2
) = cx
1
+ c x
2
Nonlinear Example: y = H(x) = c x
2
y = c(x
1
+x
2
)
2
c(x
1
)
2
+ c(x
2
)
2
10
Linear Power System Elements
Resistors, inductors, capacitors, independent
voltage sources, and current sources are linear
circuit elements:
1
Such systems may be analyzed by superposition.
V R I V j L I V I
j C
e
e
= = =
11
Nonlinear Power System Elements
Constant power loads and generator
injections are nonlinear and hence systems
with these elements cannot be analyzed
(exactly) by superposition.
Nonlinear problems can be very difficult to solve,
and usually require an iterative approach.
12
Nonlinear Systems May Have
Multiple Solutions or No Solution
Example 1: x
2
- 2 = 0 has solutions x = 1.414
Example 2: x
2
+ 2 = 0 has no real solution
f(x) = x
2
- 2 f(x) = x
2
+ 2
two solutions where f(x) = 0
no solution to f(x) = 0
13
Multiple Solution Example 3
The dc system shown below has two
solutions for a value of load resistance that
results in 18 W dissipation in the load:
That is, the 18 watt
load is an unknown
resistive load R
Load
2
2
Load Load
Load
Load
Load
The equation we're solving is:
9 volts
18 watts
1 +
One solution is 2
Other solution is 0.5
I R R
R
R
R
| |
= =
|
O
\ .
= O
= O
A different
problem:
What is the
resistance to
achieve maximum
P
Load
?
14
Bus Admittance Matrix or Y
bus
First step in solving the power flow is to create
what is known as the bus admittance matrix,
often called the Y
bus
.
The Y
bus
gives the relationships between all the
bus current injections, I, and all the bus voltages,
V, I = Y
bus
V
The Y
bus
is developed by applying KCL at each bus
in the system to relate the bus current
injections, the bus voltages, and the branch
impedances and admittances.
15
Y
bus
Example
Determine the bus admittance matrix for the network
shown below, assuming the current injection at each
bus i is I
i
= I
Gi
- I
Di
where I
Gi
is the current injection
into the bus from the generator and I
Di
is the current
flowing into the load.
16
Y
bus
Example, contd
1 1 1
1 3 1 2
1 12 13
1 1 2 1 3
1 2 3
2 21 23 24
1 2 3 4
By KCL at bus 1 we have
1
( ) ( ) (with )
( )
Similarly
( )
G D
A B
A B j
j
A B A B
A A C D C D
I I I
V V V V
I I I
Z Z
I V V Y V V Y Y
Z
Y Y V Y V Y V
I I I I
Y V Y Y Y V Y V Y V
= + = +
= + =
= +
= + +
= + + +
17
Y
bus
Example, contd
bus
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
We can get similar relationships for buses 3 and 4
The results can then be expressed in matrix form
0
0
0 0
A B A B
A A C D C D
B C B C
D D
I Y Y Y Y V
I Y Y Y Y Y Y V
I Y Y Y Y V
I Y Y V
=
+
( (
( (
+ +
( (
=
+
( (
( (
I Y V
(
(
(
(
(
= + = =
+
+
( ( (
=
( ( (
+
21
Using the Y
bus
bus
1
bus bus
1
bus bus
If the voltages are known then we can solve for
the current injections:
If the current injections are known then we can
solve for the voltages:
where = is the bus impedan
=
= =
Y V I
Y I V Z I
Z Y ce matrix.
22
Solving for Bus Currents
*
1 1 1
For example, in previous case assume:
1.0
0.8 0.2
Then
12 15.9 12 16 1.0 5.60 0.70
12 16 12 15.9 0.8 0.2 5.58 0.88
Therefore the power injected at bus 1 is:
S 1.0 (5.
j
j j j
j j j j
V I
(
=
(
+
( ( (
=
( ( (
+ +
= =
V
*
2 2 2
60 0.70) 5.60 0.70
(0.8 0.2) ( 5.58 0.88) 4.64 0.41
j j
S V I j j j
+ = +
= = = +
23
Solving for Bus Voltages
1
*
1 1 1
As another example, in previous case assume
5.0
4.8
Then
12 15.9 12 16 5.0 0.0738 0.902
12 16 12 15.9 4.8 0.0738 1.098
Therefore the power injected is
S (0.0738 0.9
j j j
j j j
V I j
(
=
(
+
( ( (
=
( ( (
+
= =
I
*
2 2 2
02) 5 0.37 4.51
( 0.0738 1.098) ( 4.8) 0.35 5.27
j
S V I j j
=
= = = +
24
Power Flow Analysis
When analyzing power systems we know
neither the complex bus voltages nor the
complex current injections.
Rather, we know the complex power being
consumed by the load, and the power being
injected by the generators and their voltage
magnitudes.
Therefore we can not directly use the Y
bus
equations, but rather must use the power
balance equations.
25
Power Balance Equations
1
bus
1
From KCL we know at each bus in an bus system
the current injection, , must be equal to the current
that flows into the network
Since = we also know
i
n
i Gi Di ik
k
n
i Gi Di ik k
k
i n
I
I I I I
I I I Y V
=
=
= =
= =
I Y V
*
The network power injection is then
i i i
S V I =
26
Power Balance Equations, contd
*
* * *
1 1
This is an equation with complex numbers.
Sometimes we would like an equivalent set of real
power equations. These can be derived by defining
n n
i i i i ik k i ik k
k k
ik ik ik
i
S V I V Y V V Y V
Y G jB
V
= =
| |
= = =
|
\ .
+
j
Recall e cos sin
i
j
i i i
ik i k
V e V
j
u
u
u
u u u
u u
= Z
= +
27
Real Power Balance Equations
* *
1 1
1
1
1
( )
(cos sin )( )
Resolving into the real and imaginary parts
( cos sin )
( sin cos
ik
n n
j
i i i i ik k i k ik ik
k k
n
i k ik ik ik ik
k
n
i i k ik ik ik ik Gi Di
k
n
i i k ik ik ik i
k
S P jQ V Y V V V e G jB
V V j G jB
P V V G B P P
Q V V G B
u
u u
u u
u u
= =
=
=
=
= + = =
= +
= + =
=
)
k Gi Di
Q Q =
28
Power Flow Requires Iterative
Solution
bus
*
*
1
In the power flow we assume we know and the
. We would like to solve for the values .
The difficulty is that the following equation has
no closed form solution:
i
i
n
i i i i ik k
k
S
V
S V I V Y V
=
| |
= =
|
\ .
Y
* *
1
Rather, we must pursue an iterative approach.
n
i ik k
k
V Y V
=
=
29
Gauss (or Jacobi) Iteration
There are a number of different iterative methods
we can use. We'll consider two: Gauss and Newton.
With the Gauss method we need to rewrite our
equation in an implicit form: ( )
To iterate we fir
x h x =
(0)
( 1) ( )
st make an initial guess of ,
which we call ,
and then iteratively solve ( ) until we
find a "fixed point", , such that ( ).
v v
x
x
x h x
x x h x
+
=
=
30
Gauss Iteration Example
( 1) ( )
(0)
( ) ( )
Example: Solve 1 0, so ( ) 1 .
1
Start at = 0, arbitrarily guess 1 and iterate:
0 1 5 2.61185
1 2 6 2.61612
2 2.41421 7 2.61744
3 2.55538 8 2.61785
4 2.59805 9 2.61798
v v
v v
x x h x x
x x
x
x x
v
v v
+
= = +
= +
=
31
Stopping Criteria
( ) ( ) ( 1) ( )
A key problem to address is when to stop the
iteration. With the Gauss iteration we stop when
with
If is a scalar this is clear, but if is a vector we
need to generalize t
v v v v
x x x x
x x
c
+
A < A
( )
2
2
1
he absolute value by using a norm
Two common norms are the Euclidean & infinity
( ) max
v
n
i i i
i
x
x x
c
=
A <
A = A A = A
x x
32
Gauss Power Flow
*
* * *
1 1
* * * *
1 1
*
*
1
We first need to put the equation in the appropriate form,
with power flow expressed in the form ( ) :
i i
i
n n
i i i i ik k i ik k
k k
n n
i i i ik k ik k
k k
n
i
ik k
k
V h V
S V I V Y V V Y V
S V I V Y V V Y V
S
Y V
V
= =
= =
=
=
| |
= = =
|
\ .
= = =
=
1,
*
*
1,
S 1
( ).
i
n
ii i ik k
k k i
n
i
i ik k i
ii k k i
Y V Y V
V Y V h V
Y
V
= =
= =
= +
| |
= =
|
|
\ .
33