Marketing Research

Marketing Info. System

Secondary data: Information collected for another purpose which already exists. Primary data: Information collected for the specific purpose at hand

Marketing Info. System

Types of Data
Secondary data Primary data
Secondary data sources: Government information Internal, commercial, and online databases Publications Advantages: Obtained quickly Less expensive than primary data Disadvantages: Information may not exist or may not be

Marketing Info. System

Evaluate the Following When Judging Data Quality
Relevance Accuracy Currency

Questionnaire Development Process

Steps in a Questionnaire Development Process

Determine Survey Objectives

Decide Data Collection Methods

Question Development

Pre-design activities

Question Evaluation by Researcher and by Client

Post-design activities
Tabulate and Analyze Data and Finalize Report Gather Data Using the Questionnaire

Pretest the Questionna ire Revise, Finalize,

Design activities

Addressing Non-Sampling Error

How do We Get People to Complete Our Surveys and Provide us with Good Information ?? Non-Response
Error
Non-Sampling Error Response or Field Error

MAJOR CONCLUSION Sampling Error is Very Minor When Compared to Non-Sampling Error Sampling Error - 5 % of Total Error Non-Sampling Error - 95% of Total Error

Sources of Non-Sampling Error

NONCONTACT SAMPLING ERROR TOTAL ERROR NONRESPONSE REFUSALS NOT AT HOME CANT LOCATE

EXPLICIT SENSITIVE TOPIC OVERBURDENING

NON-SAMPLING ERROR

FIELD DATA COLLECTION

INTERVIEW BIAS

IMPLICIT LACK OF MOTIVATION

OFFICE PROCESSING

EDITING CODING ANALYSES

Gathering Primary Data: Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Quantitative research more structured type of questions to a large number of respondents Qualitative research - open ended questions that reflect an individuals thoughts, philosophies or feelings. (Exploratory survey, personal values, purchase motivations) Indirect interviewing

Primary Research Methods

Surveys Experimentation Observation Focus groups In-depth interviews Projective techniques

Surveys
Planned questions Open-ended Closed-ended Forms

Problem questions

Mail Telephone Mall Intercept Internet/Computer Comp. Assist. Teleph. Interv. Personal Purchase Intercept Technique

Leading Ambiguous Unanswerable (Dont know, forgotten) Two questions in one Non-exhaustive question

Observation (sometimes only method)

Observation research using people or machines Mystery shoppers, traffic counters, web site cookies, physical traces, are some examples. Structured/Unstructured Indirect (Kitchen Audit)

Discovers behavior but not motivations.

Person administered surveys I

1. Direct, face-to-face Interview: Interviewer and interviewee see and talk to each other face-to-face. Includes In-home/In-office Interview
Appointment first, Face to face Interview

Mall Intercept Interview (Stop, Qualify)

Interview outside home, in supermarkets, departmental stores, other public places

Face to face interview

Advantages
Direct interaction Clarity and display of exhibits Better quality and quantity of data Higher response rate Identifying respondents Unstructured

Disadvantages
High cost Longer time Anonymity not maintained Interviewer cheating

Person Administered Surveys II

2. Indirect, non- face-to-face Interview:
The interviewer and the interviewee do not see but talk direct to each other. CATI

Telephone Interview

Telephone Interview
Advantages
Faster Results Inexpensive Better geographical coverage Reaching hard-to-reach people Timing: early or late OK Privacy and better control Coincidental data: immediate feedback.

Disadvantages
No exhibits Long interview not possible Answering machines and caller identification device Sampling problem Obsolete directory: poor sampling frame Voluntary unlisting

Self-administered surveys
Mail Survey
Advantages
Wide geographical coverage Providing thoughtful answers Ability to ask sensitive questions No interviewer bias Inexpensive Anonymity Clarity

Disadvantages

Mailing list problem Postal delivery problem Data limitation No interviewer assistance
no exhibits

Assumed literacy Poor response rate Longer time Problem with complex questionnaire, e.g. with skip instructions

A questionnaire --Is the question necessary

Data collection instrument used for gathering data; A formalized schedule of an assembly of carefully formulated questions;

Six important functions

Converts research objectives into specific questions Standardizes the questions Keeps respondents motivated to complete the research Serve as a permanent record Speed-up the process of data analysis

Advantages and disadvantages of

Open-ended Questions

Advantages Since they do not restrict the respondents response, the widest scope of response can be attained. Most appropriate where the range of possible responses is broad, or cannot be predetermined. Responses may often be used as direct quotes to bring realism and life to the written report.

Disadvantages
Inappropriate for self-administered questionnaire since people tend to write more briefly than they speak. The interviewer may only record a summary of the responses given by an interview and fail to capture the the interviewers own ideas. It is difficult to categorize and summarize the diverse responses of different respondents. Huge time and cost of coding May annoy a respondent and prompt him/her to terminate the interview, or ignore the mail questionnaire.

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Closed-ended Questions
ADVANTAGES
All respondents reply on a standard response set. This ensures comparability of responses, facilitates coding, tabulating and interpreting the data. Easier to administer and most suited for self-administered questionnaire. If used in interviews, less skilled interviewer may be engaged to do the job.

DISADVANTAGES
Preparing the list of responses is timeconsuming. If the list of responses is long, the respondents may be confused. If the list of responses is not comprehensive, responses may often fail to represent the respondents point of views.

Phrasing and Sequencing of Questions

PHRASING Ask precise questions using respondents core vocabulary Avoid
use of vague words asking leading or loaded questions double barreled questions Biased frame Odd/even? (otherwise resp. may mark midpt. Even if no opinion-distort measures of central tendency).

SEQUENCING Start with simple opening questions Place

broad-based questions first; more specific and narrow questions and difficult, sensitive, embarrassing questions should come later(Funnel approach) Classification questions last.

Transition from one topic to another should be smooth State assumptions

Depth Interviews
Focus Group New product concepts, positioning, advertising research, behaviour determination
moderator might shift topics too rapidly, encourage certain answers, peer pressure, locational problems, too vocal people, participants may differ from those who dont

One-on-ones (no prespecified ordered set of questions, freedom to create question, can probe responses that appear relevant, latitude to air their views, detailed probing of individuals attitudes, confidential nature of subject matter, emotionally charged matter, no need to conform to a group, complicated decision making patterns)
V. high interviewer effects, time consuming

 Symbolic Questioning
Beer & Skimmed Milk Beer & wine

Detailed probing complex, step-by-step decision making patterns (buying a flat) Confidential subjects- personal investments Socially acceptable norms
M. Lynch (Bullish on America vs. High returns; wouldnt come out in focus groups)

Projective techniques (emotional response to ads, products, usage, generate hypotheses)

Association techniques - Word association free /successive Completion techniques Story completion Cartoon techniques, Role playing, Third person technique (Instant coffee) Problems: Personal interviews with highly trained interviewersexpensive, leads to small sample sizes and therefore nonprobability selection procedures, people feel shy, possibility of interpreter bias

Other Error Sources

Short Term Characteristics Situational characteristics Interviewer effects Normative questions Prestige questions Questionnaire length

Techniques for Generating Higher Response Rates

Preliminary or Advance Notification Persuasion Follow-ups Appeals Personalization Assurances of anonymity Incentives Sponsor of survey

FIELD CONTROLS: To minimise errors during the actual collection of data

Monitoring . The observation of field work Validation. Important in survey research to control interviewer cheating Interviewer code Time & result of each contact attempt to be recorded

Editing
Missing Data Exclude the respondent (if sample size large and unsatisfactory responses small) Assign average values Recontact the respondent (Easier in b2b- small sample size, respondents easily identifiable) Impute (income based on occupation) Recontact subsample of respondents Politz-Simmons

Ambiguous data guess which answer is correct based on other responses in the questionnaire, discard the questionnaire, treat both answers as missing data, recontact the respondent

Field work
Pretest the questionnaire Selection of field workers
Similar to respondent Good speaking & listening skills Good reading & writing skills (college education) Experienced (not accepting refusals/ dont knows, knows how to probe, fill quotas of respondents)

Training of field workers Recording the answers Alleviate confidentiality concerns/ethical issues Supervision Evaluation of field workers

Gender & Internet usage

Gender

Internet usage
Light (<5 hours) Heavy (> 5 hours) Column Total

Male
5 (33.3%) 10 (66.7%) 15

Female
10 (66.7%) 5 (33.3%) 15

Row total 15
15

Purchase of Fashion Clothing & Marital Status

Marital Status Purchase of Fashion High Clothing Low Married 31% 69% 100% Unmarried 52% 48% 100%

No. of Respondents

700

300

Purchase of Fashion Clothing by Marital Status and Sex

Purchase of High Fashion Clothing Low Male
M 35% 65% U 40% 60%

Female
M 25% 75% U 60% 40% 100%

100% 100% 100%

400

120

300

180

Effect is more pronounced in females

International Marketing Research

Data Collection Issues Lack of of comparable data among countries Absence of secondary data in general Difficulties gathering primary data in a country not your own Differences in definitions and data collection methods Problem with classification differences (urban)

International Marketing Research

If conducting your own research: Subscribe to newspaper Personally visit country Attend trade fairs Exploratory study Test Marketing

Research in LDCs
Unavailable/inaccurate secondary data:
Much data on Asian markets are either non-existent, difficult to obtain or unreliable. For example, in many Asian countries consumers income estimates are inaccurate since they omit the unreported or underreported income.

Problem with primary data

Survey research suffers from lack of sampling frame; shortage of qualified researchers/interviewers; respondents unfamiliarity with research and lack of trust on researchers; less than truthful responses; and other cultural idiosyncrasies. Poor postal and telephone system; poor rate of literacy of respondents; high rate of change and political instability etc.

The nature and magnitude of problems vary from country to country.

 List of residents nonexistent, inaccurate No street names,; houses have no numbers Utility company lists may not be accurate Japan - official resident list use restricted May not be able to use same sampling method across all countries- random (USA); judgmental (India)

 Non response
Refusal to respond Women in Middle East wont give interviews in husbands absence, suspicious of strangers (tax inspectors) Callback may be quite difficult poor roads, lighting and high crime rate, poor telephone service

 Observation Useful, esp. in countries where with certain classes surveys cannot be used
Toyota observed how closely cars were parked Door mechanism that also opens the trunk

Local observers (may fail to notice school uniforms) American observer Can draw wrong conclusion

 Need to properly train observers so a sto notice desired details systematically Use observers of various backgrounds to cover each others blind spots

Learn about competitors by observing

Questioning
Personal interview problem if too many local languages Mail survey Scarcity of good mailing lists; Illiteracy; Poor postal service Telephone survey Often telephone owners belong to the higher-income groups, thus untypical of the larger population; poor phone service

 Conceptual Equivalence Functional equivalence Definitional/Classification equivalence

Scale balanced? Lower-point scale?

Linguistic Equivalence Methods used to minimise errors in translation

Back translation Parallel translation

Measurement Timing seasonal factors, product life-cycle stage Internal & External Validity

Other important Points

C. Problems in Analyzing and Interpreting Research Information
Researcher must have the following to avoid incorrect interpretations of the research data
Be culturally adept and sensitive to differences Be able to adapt research results appropriately Be skeptical in handling both primary and secondary data

D. Who is responsible for conducting Marketing Research

Assigned by company (department or division or agent) Local analysts (decentralized) Best approach is to have local researchers with close coordination between local research company and headqrts.

Factor Analysis

Factor Analysis
A data reduction technique designed to represent a wide range of attributes on a smaller number of dimensions.

Factor Analysis
For example, suppose that a bank asked a large number of questions about a given branch. Consider how the following characteristics might be more parsimoniously represented by just a few constructs (factors).

Factor Analysis

Factor Analysis
- Benefits include: (1) a more concise representation of the marketing situation and hence communication may be enhanced; (2) fewer questions may be required on future surveys - Ideally, interval data (e.g., a rating on a 7 point scale), regarding the perceptions of consumers are required regarding a number of features, such as those noted above for the bank are gathered.

Measurement and Scaling

Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain prespecified rules. Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located.

Primary Scales of Measurement

Scale Nominal
Numbers Assigned to Runners Rank Order of Winners
Third place Second place First place Finish
7 8 3

Ordinal

Finish

Interval

Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale

Time to Finish, in Seconds

8.2

9.1

9.6

Ratio

15.2

14.1

13.4

Primary Scales of Measurement Nominal Scale

The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the objects. The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the objects.

Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale
No. Store

Ordinal Scale
Preference Rankings

Interval Scale
Preference Ratings 1-7
79 25 82 30 10 53 95 61 45 115 5 7 4 6 7 5 4 5 6 2

Ratio Scale
$ spent last 3 months
0 200 0 100 250 35 0 100 0 10

1. Lord & Taylor 2. Macys 3. Kmart 4. Richs 5. J.C. Penney 6. Neiman Marcus 7. Target 8. Saks Fifth Avenue 9. Sears 10.Wal-Mart

7 2 8 3 1 5 9 6 4 10

Primary Scales of Measurement Ordinal Scale

A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object, but not how much more or less.

Primary Scales of Measurement Interval Scale

Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. It permits comparison of the differences between objects.

A Classification of Scaling Techniques

Scaling Techniques

Comparative Scales

Noncomparative Scales

Paired Comparison

Rank Order

Constant Sum

Q-Sort and Other Procedures

Continuous Itemized Rating Scales Rating Scales

Likert

Semantic Differential

Stapel

A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.
In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

Comparative Scaling Techniques Paired Comparison Scaling

A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. The data obtained are ordinal in nature. Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative scaling technique.

Paired Comparison Selling

The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumers purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke. A paired comparison taste test

Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling

Brand 1. Crest 2. Colgate Rank Order _________ _________

3. Aim
4. Gleem 5. Macleans 6. Ultra Brite

_________
_________ _________ _________

7. Close Up
8. Pepsodent 9. Plus White 10. Stripe

_________
_________ _________ _________

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Using a Constant Sum Scale

Form
Attribute 1. Mildness 2. Lather 3. Shrinkage 4. Price 5. Fragrance 6. Packaging 7. Moisturizing 8. Cleaning Power Sum

Average Responses of Three Segments

Segment I
8 2 3 53 9 7 5 13 100

Segment II
2 4 9 17 0 5 3 60 100

Segment III
4 17 7 9 19 9 20 15 100

Noncomparative Scaling Techniques

Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for this reason noncomparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales. Noncomparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating scales.

Continuous Rating Scale

Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
How would you rate Sears as a department store? Version 1 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best Version 2 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Version 3 Neither good Very good nor bad Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Very bad

Itemized Rating Scales

The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief description associated with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and the respondents are required to select the specified category that best describes the object being rated. The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.

Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly Agree Strongly disagree agree nor agree disagree 1. Sears sells high quality merchandise. 1 2X 3 4 5 Disagree Neither

2. Sears has poor in-store service.

3. I like to shop at Sears.

1
1

2X
2

3
3X

4
4

5
5

Semantic Differential Scale

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. SEARS IS: Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right. This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels. Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.

A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self- Concepts, Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged 2) Excitable 3) Uncomfortable 4) Dominating 5) Thrifty 6) Pleasant 7) Contemporary 8) Organized 9) Rational 10) Youthful 11) Formal 12) Orthodox 13) Complex 14) Colorless 15) Modest :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain

Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.
SEARS +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 HIGH QUALITY -1 -2 -3 -4X -5 +5 +4 +3 +2X +1 POOR SERVICE -1 -2 -3 -4 -5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic differential data.

Summary of Itemized Scale Decisions

1) Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number, traditional guidelines suggest that there should be between five and nine categories

2) Balanced vs. unbalanced

3) Odd/even no. of categories

In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain objective data

If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible from at least some of the respondents, an odd number of categories should be used

4) Forced vs. non-forced

In situations where the respondents are expected to have no opinion, the accuracy of the data may be improved by a non-forced scale
An argument can be made for labeling all or many scale categories. The category descriptions should be located as close to the response categories as possible A number of options should be tried and the best selected

5) Verbal description

6) Physical form

Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

Jovan Musk for Men is
Extremely good Very good Good Bad Very bad Extremely bad

Jovan Musk for Men is

Extremely good Very good Good Somewhat good Bad Very bad

Rating Scale Configurations

Cheer detergent is:
1) Very harsh 2) Very harsh --1 --2 --3 --4 --5 --6 --7

Figure 9.2

A variety of scale configurations may be employed to measure the gentleness of Cheer detergent. Some examples include:

Very gentle Very gentle

3) . Very harsh . Cheer . . Neither harsh nor gentle . . . Very gentle 4) ____ ____ ____ ____ Very Harsh Somewhat Neither harsh harsh Harsh nor gentle 5)

____ Somewhat gentle

____ Gentle

____ Very gentle

-3
Very harsh

-2

-1

0
Neither harsh nor gentle

+1

+2

+3
Very gentle

Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations

Thermometer Scale Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonalds hamburgers by coloring in
the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level that best indicates how strong your preference is.

Form:

Like very much Dislike very much

100 75 50 25 0

Smiling Face Scale Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the Barbie Doll. If
you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked it very much, you would point to Face 5.

Form:

Profile analysis
Profile analysis of a beer brand images
(source: William A. Mindak, Fitting the Semantic Differential of the Marketing Problem, JM April 1962 p. 28-33)
Brand x Brand Y BrandZ

Something special Relaxing Little aftertaste Strong Aged a long time Really refreshing Light feeling Distinctive flavor Not waterly looking

Just another beer Not relaxing Lots of aftertaste Weak Not aged a long time Not really refreshing Heavy feeling Ordinary flavor Waterly looking

A Semantic Differential for Two Furniture Stores

Summated Scaling: Likert

ITEMS
The primary use of forests should be for products that are useful to humans
Forest resources can be improved through human management Forests should be used primarily for timber and wood products We should actively harvest more trees to meet the needs of a much larger human population Plants and animals exist primarily for human use Humans should have more love, respect, and admiration for forests Forests have a right to exist for their own sake Wildlife, plants, and humans have equal rights to live and develop
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4
4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5
5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Summated Scaling: Likert

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

The primary use of forests should be for products that are useful to humans
Forest resources can be improved through human management Forests should be used primarily for timber and wood products We should actively harvest more trees to meet the needs of a much larger human population Plants and animals exist primarily for human use Humans should have more love, respect, and admiration for forests

1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4
4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5
5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Forests have a right to exist for their own sake Wildlife, plants, and humans have equal rights to live and develop

Summated Scaling: Likert

Original Score Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Item 8 Scale Score 2 1 2 2 1 4 5 4 21 Recoded Score 4 5 4 4 5 4 5 4 35

Summated Scaling: Likert

Person 1 Scale Score 5 Interpretation Highly biocentric

2 3
4

13 29
38

Biocentric Anthropocentric
Highly anthropocentric

Differences between Industrial and Consumer Markets that affect Marketing Research

Consumer markets more numerous Industrial markets bigger dollarwise 80-20 principle Multiple buying influences Decision makers less accessible More knowledgeable buyers & hence less swayed by ads Major future orientation Less research on advertising, packaging. Trade association data very important

 Greater emphasis on surveys vav observation and experiments Personal interviews used most frequently (small, geo. Conc. population; uniqueness of info sought, demos, samples, models, pics.) Probability sampling not used to a great extent Less emphasis on quantitative analysis Difficult to find good interviewers; need training Respondent overresearched Back-door approach Requires tact on interviewers part; readiness to accept ball-park estimates

Presentation of Data
Objectivity on the part of the researcher Nature of the audience- technical or popular report
Managers want specific findings of the research whereas techs more concerned with process used to obtain the information and methods used to analyze the data Hence prepare the report in a manner that best fits the needs of the user

Major components of written reports

Title page Letter of transmittal Table of contents Executive summary/Highlights/Abstract Introduction Statement of Objectives Description of methodology Presentation of findings Limitations of the study Conclusions and recommendations Appendix

Length of report Use common terminology whenever possible Convey appropriate level of formality Have one final writer Make report appealing Make effective use of tables and graphs Oral presentation what to highlight, professional speakers (?), dont overwhelm audience with numerical data, make available written report to the audience Presentation of negative findings dont avoid, depersonalize, highlight positives too, give recommendations