CH 16

Chapter 16:
The
Cardiovascular
System: Blood
Vessels and
Circulation
2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Cardiovascular System: Blood
Vessels and Circulation

Blood vessel structure and function
Blood flow through blood vessels
Circulatory routes
Checking circulation
Aging and the cardiovascular system

Blood Vessel Structure and Function
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Their walls consist of three
layers. The structure of the middle layer gives arteries their two major
properties, elasticity and contractility.

Arterioles are small arteries that deliver blood to capillaries. Through
constriction and dilation, arterioles play a key role in regulating blood flow
from arteries into capillaries.

Capillaries are microscopic blood vessels through which materials are
exchanged between blood and interstitial fluid. Precapillary sphincters
regulate blood flow through capillaries.

Capillary blood pressure pushes fluid out of capillaries into interstitial
fluid (filtration). Blood colloid osmotic pressure pulls fluid into
capillaries from interstitial fluid (reabsorption).
Autoregulation refers to local adjustments of blood flow in response to
physical and chemical changes in a tissue.

Venules are small vessels that emerge from capillaries and merge to form
veins. They drain blood from capillaries into veins.

Veins consist of the same three layers as arteries but have less elastic
tissue and smooth muscle. They contain valves that prevent backflow of
blood. Weak venous valves can lead to varicose veins.

Venous return, the volume of blood flowing back to the heart through
systemic veins, occurs due to the pumping action of the heart, aided by
skeletal muscle contractions (the skeletal muscle pump), and breathing
(the respiratory pump).
Functions of Blood Vessels
1. Blood vessels form a closed system of tubes that carries
blood away from the heart (in arteries), transports it through
the tissues of the body (in arterioles, capillaries, and
venules), and then returns it to the heart (in veins).
2. Exchange of substances between the blood and body tissue
cells occurs as blood flows through the capillaries.
3. Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the blood through
interstitial fluid into tissue cells. Waste products, including
carbon dioxide, diffuse from tissue cells through interstitial
fluid into the blood.
Capillary Exchange
Animation:
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Capillary Exchange
Skeletal Muscle Pump
1) While you are standing at rest, both the venous
valve closer to the heart and the one farther from the
heart in this part of the leg are open, and blood flows
upward toward the heart.

2) Contraction of leg muscles, such as when you
stand on tiptoes or take a step, compresses the vein.
The compression pushes blood through the valve
closer to the heart, an action called milking. At the
same time, the valve farther from the heart in the
uncompressed segment of the vein closes as some
blood is pushed against it. People who are
immobilized through injury or disease lack these
contractions of leg muscles. As a result, their venous
return is slower and they may develop circulation
problems.

3) Just after muscle relaxation, pressure falls in the
previously compressed section of vein, which causes
the valve closer to the heart to close. The valve farther
from the heart now opens because blood pressure in
the foot is higher than in the leg, and the vein fills with
blood from the foot.
Animation:
Vascular Regulation
Blood Flow Through Blood Vessels
Blood flow is determined by blood pressure and vascular resistance.

Blood flows from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure.
Blood pressure is highest in the aorta and large systemic arteries; it drops
progressively as distance from the left ventricle increases. Blood pressure in
the right atrium is close to 0 mm Hg.

An increase in blood volume increases blood pressure, and a decrease in
blood volume decreases it.

Vascular resistance is the opposition to blood flow mainly as a result of
friction between blood and the walls of blood vessels. It depends on the size
of the blood vessel lumen, blood viscosity, and total blood vessel length.

Blood pressure and blood flow are regulated by neural and hormonal
negative feedback systems and by autoregulation.

Blood Flow Through Blood Vessels

The cardiovascular (CV) center in the medulla oblongata helps regulate
heart rate, stroke volume, and size of blood vessel lumen.

Vasomotor nerves (sympathetic) control vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

Baroreceptors (pressure-sensitive receptors) send impulses to the
cardiovascular center to regulate blood pressure.

Chemoreceptors (receptors sensitive to concentrations of oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen ions) also send impulses to the cardiovascular center
to regulate blood pressure.

Hormones such as angiotensin II, aldosterone, epinephrine, norepinephrine,
and antidiuretic hormone raise blood pressure; atrial natriuretic peptide
lowers it.
Blood Pressure Changes
The Cardiovascular Center
Negative Feedback
Regulation of
Blood
Pressure
Animation:
Negative Feedback Control of Blood Pressure
Circulatory Routes
The two major circulatory routes are the systemic circulation and the
pulmonary circulation.

The systemic circulation takes oxygenated blood from the left ventricle
through the aorta to all parts of the body and returns deoxygenated blood to
the right atrium.

The parts of the aorta include the ascending aorta, the arch of the aorta,
the thoracic aorta, and the abdominal aorta (see Exhibit 16.A). Each part
gives off arteries that branch to supply the whole body (see Exhibits 16.B
16.C).

Deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart through the systemic veins
(see Exhibit 16.D). All veins of the systemic circulation flow into either the
superior or inferior vena cava or the coronary sinus, which empty into the
right atrium (see Exhibits 16.E16.G).
Circulatory Routes
The pulmonary circulation takes deoxygenated blood from the right
ventricle to the air sacs of the lungs and returns oxygenated blood from the
air sacs to the left atrium. It allows blood to be oxygenated for systemic
circulation.

The hepatic portal circulation collects deoxygenated blood from the veins
of the gastrointestinal tract and spleen and directs it into the hepatic portal
vein of the liver. This routing allows the liver to extract and modify nutrients
and detoxify harmful substances in the blood. The liver also receives
oxygenated blood from the hepatic artery.

Fetal circulation exists only in the fetus. It involves the exchange of
materials between fetus and mother via the placenta. The fetus derives O2
and nutrients from and eliminates CO2 and wastes into maternal blood. At
birth, when pulmonary (lung), digestive, and liver functions begin, the
special structures of fetal circulation are no longer needed.
Circulatory
Routes
Anatomy Overview:
Comparison of Circulatory Routes
Aorta and its
Branches
Aorta and its
Branches
Arch of Aorta
Arch of Aorta
Arteries of
the Pelvis
and Lower Limb
Arteries of
the Pelvis
and Lower Limb
Veins
Veins
Veins of the Head and Neck
Veins of the Head and Neck
Veins of the Hand
Principal Veins of the Upper Right Limb

Principal Veins of the Upper Right Limb

Veins of
the Pelvis
and
Lower Limbs
Veins of the
Pelvis and
Lower Limbs

Hepatic Portal Circulation
Hepatic Circulation
Fetal
Circulation
Checking Circulation
Pulse is the alternate expansion and elastic recoil of an artery with
each heartbeat. It may be felt in any artery that lies near the surface
or over a hard tissue.

A normal pulse rate is about 75 beats per minute.

Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by blood on the wall of an
artery when the left ventricle undergoes systole and then diastole. It
is measured by a sphygmomanometer.

Systolic blood pressure (SBP) is the force of blood recorded
during ventricular contraction. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) is
the force of blood recorded during ventricular relaxation. The normal
blood pressure of a young adult male is less than 120/80.
Aging and the Cardiovascular System
Hypertension
About 50 million Americans have hypertension, or persistently high blood
pressure. It is the most common disorder affecting the heart and blood
vessels and is the major cause of heart failure, kidney disease, and stroke.
In May 2003, the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection,
Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure published new
guidelines for hypertension because clinical studies have linked what were
once considered fairly low pressure readings to an increased risk of
cardiovascular disease. The new guidelines are as follows:

Category Systolic (mm Hg) Diastolic (mm Hg)
Normal Less than 120 and Less than 80
Prehypertension 120139 or 8089
Stage 1 hypertension 140159 or 9099
Stage 2 hypertension Greater than 160 or Greater than 100
Hypertension
Aneurysm
An aneurysm (AN--rizm) is a thin, weakened
section of the wall of an artery or a vein that bulges
outward, forming a balloonlike sac. Common causes
are atherosclerosis, syphilis, congenital blood vessel
defects, and trauma. If untreated, the aneurysm
enlarges and the blood vessel wall becomes so thin
that it bursts. The result is massive hemorrhage
along with shock, severe pain, stroke, or death.
General changes associated with aging include
reduced elasticity of blood vessels, reduction in
cardiac muscle size, reduced cardiac output, and
increased systolic blood pressure.

The incidence of coronary artery disease (CAD),
congestive heart failure (CHF), and atherosclerosis
increases with age.
2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved.
End of Chapter 16
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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