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This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 8 on symbolic logic. It introduces modern symbolic logic which uses symbols to represent logical concepts for clarity. The symbols discussed are:
- Conjunction ("and") represented by the symbol "&"
- Negation ("not") represented by the symbol "~"
- Disjunction ("or") which can be inclusive or exclusive
Truth tables are presented as a way to determine the truth value of compound statements based on the truth values of their components. Exercises are included to have the reader practice applying these logical symbols and concepts.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 8 on symbolic logic. It introduces modern symbolic logic which uses symbols to represent logical concepts for clarity. The symbols discussed are:
- Conjunction ("and") represented by the symbol "&"
- Negation ("not") represented by the symbol "~"
- Disjunction ("or") which can be inclusive or exclusive
Truth tables are presented as a way to determine the truth value of compound statements based on the truth values of their components. Exercises are included to have the reader practice applying these logical symbols and concepts.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 8 on symbolic logic. It introduces modern symbolic logic which uses symbols to represent logical concepts for clarity. The symbols discussed are:
- Conjunction ("and") represented by the symbol "&"
- Negation ("not") represented by the symbol "~"
- Disjunction ("or") which can be inclusive or exclusive
Truth tables are presented as a way to determine the truth value of compound statements based on the truth values of their components. Exercises are included to have the reader practice applying these logical symbols and concepts.
The Symbols for Conjunction, Negation, and Disjunction Conditional Statements and Material Implication Modern Logic and Its Symbolic Language Theory of Deduction Classical/Aristotelian Logic Modern/Symbolic Logic Its modern development began with George Boole in the 19 th
century. Why Symbolic Logic? 1. Ordinary everyday language is flowery and ambiguous (because of equivocation, amphiboly, accent, vagueness, etc.) 2. Symbolic logic introduces high degree of clarity and simplicity. 3. There is also economy of space and time.
Symbolic logic begins by first identifying the fundamental logical connectives on which deductive argument depends. The Symbols for Conjunction, Negation, and Disjunction Consider the following simple arguments: The blind prisoner has a red hat or the blind prisoner has a white hat. The blind prisoner does not have a red hat. Therefore the blind prisoner has a white hat. And If Mr. Robinson is the brakemans next-door neighbor, then Mr. Robinson lives halfway between Detroit and Chicago. Mr. Robinson does not live halfway between Detroit and Chicago. Therefore, Mr. Robinson is not the brakemans next-door neighbor. In studying such arguments we divide all propositions into two general categories: 1. Simple Propositions 2. Compound propositions Simple vs Compound Simple Propositions Statements which cannot be broken down without a loss in meaning. E.g. Ali and Sara is a couple (if break it down to Ali is a couple and Sara is a couple) But Ali and Shah are diligent students is not a simple sentence because it can be broken down without a change in meaning. Ali is a diligent student. Shah is a diligent student. This is an example of a Compound Proposition. Propositions and Operators Representation in symbolic logic: Ali and Sara is a couple. A Ali and Shah are diligent students. A S A S 1- Conjunction There are several types of compound statements, each requiring its own logical notation. The first type of compound statement is the conjunction We can form the conjunction of two statements by placing the word and between them. Thus, the compound statement, Ali and Shah are diligent students is a conjunction Symbol is used to represent and thus: Ali and Shah are diligent students. A S Truth Value We know that every statement has a truth value, where the truth value of a true statement is true and the truth value of a false statement is false Hence, the truth value of the conjunction of two statement is determined wholly and entirely by the truth values of its two conjuncts. If both conjuncts are true, the conjunction is true; otherwise it is false.
Truth Table Given any two statement, p and q, there are only four possible sets of truth values they can have i.e.
Other words to conjoin: but, yet, also, still, although, however, moreover, nevertheless, comma, and the semi colon, etc. p q p q T T T T F F F T F F F F 2- Negation The negation (contradictory or denial) of a statement is formed by the insertion of a no in the original statement. Alternatively, it can also be written as it is false that or it is not the case that Thy symbol ~ called a curl or a tilde, to form the negation of a statement. Examples: Where M symbolizes the statement All humans are mortal, the various statements: Not all humans are mortal, Some humans are not mortal, It is false that all humans are mortal, and It is not the case that all humans are mortal are symbolized as ~M. The negation of any true statement is false, and the negation of any false statement is true.
These can be presented very simple and clearly by means of a truth table:
Disjunction The disjunction (or alternation) of two statement is formed by inserting the word or between them. The word or is ambiguous, having two related but distinguishable meanings. E.g. Premiums will be waived in the event of sickness or unemployment. The intent here is that premiums are waived not only for sick persons and for unemployed person, but also for person who are both. In this sense, or is called weak or inclusive. An inclusive disjunction is true if one or the other or both disjuncts are true; only if both disjuncts are false is their inclusive disjunction false. The word or is also used in a strong or exclusive sense, in which the meaning is not at least one but at least one and at most one. Where a restaurant lists salad or dessert on its dinner menu, but not both is often added. We interpret the inclusive disjunction of two statement as an assertion that at least one of the statements is true, and we interpret their exclusive disjunction as an assertion that at least one of the statements is true but not both are true. Wage V is used for inclusive disjunction
Punctuation Punctuation is required if complicated statements are to be clear. E.g. quite different meanings attach to The teacher says John is a fool when it is given different punctuations. Punctuation is equally necessary in mathematics. E.g. 2 x 3 + 5 In the language of symbolic logic punctuation marks such as (), [], {} are essential for compound statements. E.g. p . q v r is ambiguous. E.g. Jamal and Derek will not both be elected. and Jamal and Derek will both not be elected. The first denies the conjunction of J.D and may be symbolized as ~(J.D) The second says that each one of the two will not be elected, and is symbolized as ~(J).~(D) Exercises (page#315 ) A. Using the truth-table definitions of the dot, the wedge, and the curl, determine which of the following statements are true: B. If A, B, and C are true statements and X, Y, and Z are false statements, which of the following are true? B. If A, B, and C are true statements and X, Y, and Z are false statements, which of the following are true? Assignment Solve the whole exercises A (25 questions), and B (25 questions): Page 315-318 (14 th Edition)