Conventional Fuels: Carlos Sousa AGENEAL, Local Energy Management Agency of Almada

ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND VEHICLES
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CONVENTIONAL FUELS

Carlos Sousa
AGENEAL, Local Energy Management Agency of
Almada
DIESEL AND PETROL ENGINES
4 Stroke Cycle
Main components
Auxiliary Systems
DIESEL 4 Stroke Cycle
INTAKE
Air enters the combustion chamber
COMPRESSION
With all the valves closed, the piston
goes up, compressing the air inside the
cylinder
Increase in air temperature and
pressure
INJECTION
The fuel is injected into the cylinder at
high pressure, after the compression of
the air
EXPANSION
The fuel inflames when it contacts with the hot
air
The mechanical delivered the engine is now
generated
EXHAUST
After the combustion, the hot gases
leave the cylinder through the
exhaust valve(s)
INTAKE COMPRESSION EXPANSION EXHAUST INJECTION
COMBUSTO

Compression Ratio =
res
V
V
max
MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE ENGINE
Piston Transmits the movement to the
rod
Connecting Rod Transmits the
movement to the cranshaft
Crankshaft Transforms the alternative
movement in circular movement
MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE ENGINE
Distribution (opening / closing of the valves)
Cooling system (prevents components from overheating)
Lubrication (reduces sheer, washes components, etc.)
Fuel (fuel intake)

MAIN AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Double OverHead Cam, DOHC
Lateral Cam
DISTRIBUTION
DISTRIBUTION
Objectives
COOLING SYSTEMS
1. Cool engine components:
keep the engine at a suitable operating temperature (i.e.
prevent the melting of components)
keep the physical and chemical proprieties of the lubricating oil
(can deteriorate with exessive temperature)
2. Provide heat to acclimatize the interior of the vehicle
3. Improve cold start
Water pump
Thermostat
Radiator
Fan
Heating system

COOLING SYSTEMS
The function of the engine oil is much more than lubricating.
The oil must also have:
High detergent and dispersant power
High anti-oxidation power
Good cooling capacity (contributes to engine cooling)
Good capacity to neutralize acids
Maintain its with temperature change (cold and hot)
LUBRICATING SYSTEM
LUBRICATING SYSTEM
FUEL SYSTEM
Objective:
Introduce fuel in the engine, that will mix with the hot air
inside the cylinder, evaporate, auto-inflame and burn
1. Indirect injection

2. DIRECT INJECTION
Direct injection in the cylinders
Higher injection pressures
More expensive and demanding
technology
Multiple jet injectors
FUEL SYSTEM
Direct Indirect
Losses Lower thermal losses
High thermal losses between
chambers
Performance Higher Lower
Speed Slow engine speed Higher engine speed
Fuel Demands higher quality fuels
Works with lower quality fuels
(viscosity, cetane number)
Injection
Multi-jet
(higher injection pressure)
Single-jet
(lower injection pressures)
DIRECT INJECTION vs. INDIRECT INJECTION
Advantages Inconvenients
Lower fuel consumption Price
Power Noise
Cold start Vibration
DIRECT INJECTION vs. INDIRECT INJECTION
DIRECT INJECTION
Squish and Swirl
DIRECT INJECTION
TYPES OF INJECTION SYSTEMS
Radial and in-line pump

Injector-pump

Common Rail

In-line pump
600...700 bar 1 000 bar at the tip of the injector
Radial pump
1 000 to 1 500 bar at the tip of the injector
INJECTION SYSTEMS
Advantages
No high-pressure fuel lines
Higher injection pressures
Lower fuel consumption
Better torque and power at low engine speeds

Injector Pump
2000 bar
Presso mx. 1350 1500 bar
INJECTION SYSTEMS
Common-Rail
1 800 2 000 bar
Advantages
Better injection control
Reduction of noise and vibration
Good fuel consumption
Good torque and power
Reduction of pollutant emissions

INTAKE IN PETROL ENGINES
A petrol engine can admit:
A mixture of air and fuel
Air, with the fuel being injected directly into
the cylinder Direct Injection Engines
Source: Total
TURBOCHARGING
Objective: Increase the power/weight ratio
A compressor increases the density of the air before being admitted to the
cylinders
Disadvantages (relative to atmospheric engines - non-turbo):
Higher complexity and cost
Higher physical and thermal strains on the engine

Advantages:
More torque and power
Better fuel consumption
TURBOCHARGING
TURBOCHARGING
Variable geometry

More torque over all engine speed
range

Better fuel consumption

More power
TURBOCHARGING
TURBOCHARGING
INTERCOOLER
Objective: Increase the
power/weight ratio
Cools the air after the
compression, before admitting it
to the cylinders:
Higher mass of air inside the
cylinders
More fuel
More torque
More power

POLLUTANTS FORMATION AND CONTROL
Combustion in Diesel engines is characterised by a high concentration
of fuel droplets (poor atomization/vaporization of the fuel).
Main pollutants:
Particulate Matter (PM)
Unburned Hydrocarbons, HC
Carbon Monoxide, CO
Nitrogen Oxides, NO
x

Emissions control:
Exhaust Gas Recirculation, EGR

Particulate Filters
Catalytic Converters
Emissions control
Diesel:
Exhaust Gas Recirculation, EGR (prevents the formation of NO
x
)

Particulate Filters, active and passive (PM)
Oxidation Catalytic Converters (HC and CO)
Selective Catalytic Reduction, SCR (NO
x
into N
2
and H
2
O)

Petrol:
3-way Catalytic Converters
Oxidation Catalysts (CO and HC into CO
2
and H
2
O)
Reduction Catalysts (NO into N
2
and O
2
)
Fuel Quality, Diesel:
Diesel is cetane derived (C
10
H
22
)
Cetane Number: Indicates the higher or lower capacity of the fuel to auto-
ignite ( lower delay to auto ignition)
15: Low capacity to auto-ignite: isocetane
100: High capacity to auto-ignite: cetane
Minimum cetane number demanded: 51

Sulphur content: Less than 50 ppm Low sulphur fuel
Eliminate emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO
2
)
Reduce PM emissions
Less than 10 pmm: Sulphur free fuel (From 2009)
HC CO NO
x
PM
Diesel
Petrol
EUROPEAN EMISSIONS STANDARDS
Standard Year CO HC HC + NO
x
NO
x
PM

Euro 1 1992

2.72 - 0.97 - 0.14
Euro 2 - IDI 1996

1.00 - 0.70 - 0.08
Euro 2 - DI 1999 1.00 - 0.90 - 0.10
Euro 3 2001 0.64 - 0.56 0.50 0.05
Euro 4 2005 0.50 - 0.30 0.25 0.025
Diesel Passenger vehicles 2.5t (values in g/km)
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
TORQUE
Energy generated in one revolution of the engine, resulting from the combustion
of the fuel [kg.m or N.m].
1 kg.m=9.8 N.m
The higher the torque, the more efficient is the engine for a given engine speed.
POWER
Energy generated per unit of time [W or CV].
1kW = 1,36 CV
1 CV = 0,736 kW

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Torque curve
Shows the torque distribution along the entire engine speed range, at full
engine charge (full throttle).
Should be as flat as possible, which means good engine response at all engine
speeds.
RPM x N.m (or kg.m)
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Power curve
Shows the power distribution along the entire engine speed range, at full
engine charge (full throttle).
RPM x kW (or CV)
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
CO
2
emissions per litre: Petrol a little lower Diesel
CO
2
emissions per km: Diesel uses less fuel... emits less CO
2

Energy efficiency is a function of the compression ratio
Diesel engines use variable fuel to air ratios
Petrol engines use a constant air to fuel ratio (stoichiometric: 14.7 to 1), no
matter what the speed and load are
Diesel engines have an unthrottled intake and the air to fuel ratio at idle speed
can go as low as 100 to 1, thus giving a much greater partial load fuel
efficiency than petrol engines
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Compression ratio
T
h
e
o
r
e
t
i
c
a
l

e
n
g
i
n
e

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

Diesel engines
Petrol engines
res
V
V
max
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Useful work
Ideal process
Stoichiometric losses
Combustion losses
Speed variations
L
o
s
s
e
s

Friction losses
Losses
87%
Petrol engine, urban driving
DIESEL vs. PETROL
Diesel Petrol
Admission Air Air and fuel
Combustion
Auto ignition, due to the high
pressure and temperature
inside the cylinder
Spark ignition
Fuel
Must vaporize easily and
auto-ignite
(high cetane number)
Must be resistant to auto-
ignition
(high octane number)
Compression ratio Highest possible (15 to 24)
Limited by fuel
characteristics (9 to 12)
Efficiency ~35% Less than 30%
Turbo charging
Whenever possible.
Increases efficiency and
improves combustion
Not common, but is
becoming a popular solution
DIESEL vs. PETROL
Diesel Petrol
Fuel consumption Lower Higher
Fuel price
Usually lower, but depends
on the taxes applied in each
country
Higher
Weight Heavier Lighter and more compact
Start Almost immediate Immediate
Vibration and noise High Low
Engine speed
Limited by the
characteristics of the cycle
and fuel
High
CAR INDUSTRY ONE CURIOSITY
In 1976, Volkswagen came up with the designation GTI, but did not
register it.
Almost all auto makers used it!!

But, in 1991, Volkswagen came up with the designation TDI and
registered it. The result was
CAR INDUSTRY ONE CURIOSITY
TDI VAG Group TiD - Saab
JTD - Alfa, Fiat, Lancia D- 4D - Toyota
d - BMW D5- Volvo
CRD - Chrysler, Jeep HDI - Peugeot, Citron
TDdi - Ford Di-D Mitsubishi
TDCi - Ford dTi - Renault
CDTi - Honda dCi - Renault
CRDi - Hyundai CDT Rover
DvTdi Mazda DTI Opel
DiTD Mazda
CDI Mercedes
DDTi Nissan
Summary
Advantages Diesel engines:
Better energy efficiency: Use less fuel/energy (work with higher
compression ratios)
Advantages Petrol engines:
Better cold start
Less noise and vibrations
More elasticity (higher engine speeds)
Lighter
More power for the same engine size
Summary
Investments in Diesel engines/technology intend to:
improve atomization of the fuel (higher injection pressures)
improve flow inside the cylinder
optimize injection to reduce noise and vibration
maximize power and torque without sacrificing fuel consumption
(optimize turbo charging)
optimize fuel injection to reduce fuel consumption (e.g.: injection
technologies)
Oil companies are working to:
Increase cetane number
Lower sulphur content
Summary
Thanks to Prof. Tiago Farias
Technical University of Lisbon
Thank you for your attention!

Conventional Fuels: Carlos Sousa AGENEAL, Local Energy Management Agency of Almada

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