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Nucleotides, Nucleic Acids,

and Heredity

Each cell of our bodies contains thousands of


different molecules, all of these molecules are made up of
the same 20 amino acids, just arranged in different
sequences. Within the same species, individuals may
have some differences in their proteins, thus lack of
certain proteins that normal people have or because the
sequence of their amino acids is somewhat different.
How cells know which proteins
to synthesize out of the
extremely large number of
possible amino acid sequences?
The answer is that an individual gets the
information from its parent through
heredity.
Heredity is the transfer of characteristics,
anatomical, as well as biochemical, from
generation to generation.
> The transmission of hereditary occurs on the
molecular level.
Biologists suspected that the transmission of
hereditary information from one generation to
another generation took place in the nucleus of
the cell. More precisely, they believe that
structures within the nucleus, called
chromosomes have something to do with
heredity.
What are the Molecules
of Heredity?

Heredity is based on genes


located in chromosomes.

Genes are section of DNA that


encode specific RNA molecules.
 Different species have different number of
chromosomes in the nucleus.

 The information that determines external and


internal characteristics was thought to reside in
genes located inside the chromosomes.
Nucleic Acids

Two kinds of Nucleic Acids:


 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)


 DNA is present in the chromosomes of the nuclei of the
eukaryotic cells. RNA is not found in the chromosomes,
but rather is located elsewhere in the nucleus and
even outside the nucleus, in the cytoplasm.
 Both DNA and RNA are polymers.
 Nucleic acids are also chains. The building blocks of
nucleic acid chains are nucleotides. Composed of a
base, a monosaccharide, and a phosphate.
What are Nucleic Acids made of?

• In DNA, the heterocyclic amine bases are adenine (A),


guanine (G), cytosine ( C ), and Thymine (T).
• In RNA, they are A, G, C, and uracil (U).
• In DNA, the sugar is monosaccharide 2-deoxy-D-ribose;
in RNA, it is D-ribose.
• Nucleoside a compound composed of ribose or
deoxyribose and a base.
• Nucleotide a nucleoside bonded to one, two, or three
phosphate groups.
• Nucleic acids are giant molecules with backbones made
of alternating units of sugar and phosphate. The bases
are side chains joined by B-N-glycosidic bonds to the
sugar units.
What is the Structures of DNA and
RNA?
• DNA is made of two strands that form a double
helix. The sugar-phosphate backbone runs on the
outside of the double helix, and the hydrophobic
bases point inward.
• Complementary pairing of the bases occurs in the
double helix, such that each A on one strand, and
each G is hydrogen bonded to a C. No other pairs
fit.
• DNA is coiled around basic protein molecules
called histones. Together they form nucleosomes,
which are further condensed into chromatin.
• The DNA molecules carries, in the sequences of
its bases, all the information is passed from
parent cell to daughter cells, the sequence of the
parents DNA is copied.
What are the Different Classes of RNA?

 There are six kinds of RNA:



Messenger RNA (mRNA),

Transfer RNA (tRNA),

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA),

Small nuclear RNA (snRNA),

Micro RNA (miRNA),

Small interfering RNA (siRNA)

mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA are involved in all protein
synthesis.

Small nuclear RNA is involved in splicing reactions
and has been found in some cases to have
catalytic activity.

RNA with catalytic activity is called a ribozyme.
The Roles of Different Kinds of RNA

RNA Type Size Function


Directs amino acid sequence
mRNA Variable
of proteins
Transports amino acids to site
tRNA Small
of protein synthesis.

rRNA Several kinds- Combines with proteins to


form ribosomes, the site of
variable in size protein synthesis.
Processes initial mRNA to its
snRNA Small
mature to form in eukaryotes.

Affects gene expression;


miRNA Small
important in growth and
development.
Affects gene expression; used
siRNA Small
by scientists to knock out a
gene being studied.
What are Genes?

 A gene is a segment of a DNA


molecule that carries the sequences of
bases that directs the synthesis of one
particular protein or RNA molecule.
 DNA in higher organisms contains

sequences, called introns, that do


not code for proteins.
 The sequences that do code for

proteins are called exons.


How is DNA Replicated?

DNA replication occurs in several distinct steps.

The superstructures of chromosomes are initially
loosened be acetylation of histones.
Topoisomerases relax the higher structures.
Helicases at the replication fork separate the two
strands of the DNA.

RNA primers and primases are needed to start the
synthesis of daughter strands. The leading strand is
synthesized continously by DNA polymerases. The
lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously as
Okozaki fragments.

DNA ligase seals the nicks and the Okazaki
fragments.
Sample of DNA Replication:
Hemophilia

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