TOPIK 15

15.1 Pengesanan & pengukuran

radioaktiviti
15.2 Kesan biologi kerana Radiasi
15.3 Aplikasi Kimia Nuklear
Pengesan Radioaktiviti
1. Pengesan fotografi
2. Tiub Gieger-Muller
3. Elektroskop Kerajang Emas
4. Kebuk Awan (Cloud Chamber)
5. Pembilang bunga api (Spark
counter)



Instrumen 1: Pengesan
fotografi
Kesan radiasi terhadap filem fotografi
digunakan oleh pekerja di loji radiasi untuk
memantau aras pendedahan mereka
terhadap radiasi.
Pekerja yang terdedah kepada radiasi
dikehendaki memakai lencana yang
mengandungi filem fotografi.



Figure 5 Schematic Diagram of a Gas-Filled Detector

Anode-collects negative charges;
Cathode-collects positive charges.
A voltage is applied to the anode and the chamber walls. The
resistor in the circuit is shunted by a capacitor in parallel, so the anode
is at a positive voltage with respect to the detector wall.
As a charged particle passes through the gas-filled chamber, it ionizes
some of the gas (air) along its path of travel.
The positive anode attracts the electrons, or negative particles.
The detector wall, or cathode, attracts the positive charges.
The collection of these charges reduces the voltage across the
capacitor, causing a pulse across the resistor that is recorded by an
electronic circuit.
The voltage applied to the anode and cathode determines the electric
field and its strength.
Summary
The central electrode, or anode, attracts and
collects the electron of the ion-pair.
The chamber walls attract and collect the positive
ion.
When the applied voltage is high enough, the ion
pairs initially formed accelerate to a high enough
velocity to cause secondary ionizations. The
resultant ions cause further ionizations. This
multiplication of electrons is called gas
amplification.

Instrument 2:
Gold Leaf Electroscope
Developed in 1787 by British clergyman and
physicist Abraham Bennet.
A charged electroscope used to detect alpha
particles.
The more intense the radiation, the faster the
leaf falls.
It not suitable for detecting
beta & gamma radiation as
these cause weak ionization
of the air.

If a charged object is brought near the electroscope
terminal, the leaves also diverge-electric field of the object
causes the charges in the electroscope rod to separate.

Charges of the opposite polarity to the charged object are
attracted to the terminal, while charges with the same
polarity are repelled to the leaves, causing them to spread.

If the electroscope terminal is grounded while the charged
object is nearby, by touching it momentarily with a finger,
the same polarity charges in the leaves drain away to
ground, leaving the electroscope with a net charge of
opposite polarity to the object.

The leaves close because the charge is all concentrated at
the terminal end. When the charged object is moved away,
the charge at the terminal spreads into the leaves, causing
them to spread apart again.
Instrument 3:
Geiger-Muller Tube (GMT)
a particle detector designed to detect
ionizing radiation, such as alpha and beta
as well as gamma radiation
invented by the German physicist Hans
Geiger
one of the most famous radiation
detectors, mostly due to its simplicity and
the distinctive audible clicks produced
with the detection of individual particles.
main element of a Geiger counter
a chamber filled with inert gas or a mix of
organic vapor and halogens.
The tube contains two electrodes, the anode
and the cathode, which are usually coated
with graphite.
The anode is represented by a wire in the
center of the cylindrical chamber while the
cathode forms the lateral area.
One end of the cylinder, through which the
radiation enters the chamber, is sealed by a
mica window.
As ionizing radiation coming from the
surrounding medium passes through the mica
window and enters the Geiger-Muller tube, it
ionizes the gas inside, transforming it into
positively charged ions and electrons.
The electrons eventually migrate towards the
anode of the tube detector, while the positively
charged ions accelerate towards the cathode.
As the positive ions move towards the cathode,
they collide with the remaining inert gas thus
producing more ions through an avalanche effect.
When this happens an electrical current is
established between the two electrodes.
This current can then be easily collected, amplified and
measured or counted and played in the form of an
acoustic signal made out of clicks, each of which should
correspond to the detection of a single ion (most of the
times prevented by secondary avalanche processes).
To improve the detection, multiple discharge stopping
techniques can be used, either by removing the high
voltage from the electrodes or by inserting additional
organic or halogen gases in the inert mix.
Mica is generally preferred in the construction of
Geiger-Muller tubes mostly because it is able to detect
alpha particles, as opposed to glass, but it is also much
more fragile than glass and can be easily damaged.
Although it is said that Geiger counters detect ionizing
radiation, most of them are not sensitive to neutrons.
Nevertheless, the Geiger-Muller tube can be modified
accordingly by coating it with boron or by using boron
trifluoride gas or helium-3.
Instrument 4:
Diffusion Cloud Chamber
also known as the Wilson chamber
is used for detecting particles of ionizing
radiation.
In its most basic form, a cloud chamber is a
sealed environment containing a
supercooled, supersaturated water or
alcohol vapor.
When an alpha particle or beta particle
interacts with the mixture, it ionizes it. The
resulting ions act as condensation nuclei,
around which a mist will form (because the
mixture is on the point of condensation).
The high energies of alpha and beta particles
mean that a trail is left, due to many ions
being produced along the path of the
charged particle. These tracks have
distinctive shapes.
An alpha particle's track is broad and
straight.
An beta particles track is thinner and wavy
tracks.
An gamma particles track is short, irregular
and thin.

Natural Sources of Radiation
Cosmic rays
- extremely energetic particles, primarily
protons , which originate in the sun,
other stars and some of the violent
cataclisms which occur in the far
reaches of space.

Cosmogenic radiation
-produced by the interaction of cosmic
rays with gases in the upper
atmosphere.
Terrestrial radiation
- due to the remnants of radioactive elements
that were present on the primordial Earth and
their decay products.

Natural Radioactivity in the Body
-come mainly from radioactivity present in
minute quantities in the food we eat.

Radon Progeny
- As the Rn decays its progeny , which are not
gases, can attach themselves to particulates
in the air, and these particulates may be
trapped in the lungs of people breathing the
air.
Artificial Sources of Radiation
X rays
- used for diagnostic purposes in
medicine and dentistry
Television screens and computer
monitors
- also produce X rays
Luminescent paints for watch dials
- used radium, a highly toxic alpha
emitter if ingested by those painting
the dials.

Radiation Detection Instruments

Instrument Types Detection Principle Applications
Ion chamber (IC) Ionization of air
(or other gases)
Direct measurement of exposure or
exposure rates, with minimal energy
dependence.
Geiger-Mueller (GM)
Proportional counter
(PC)
Ionization of gas with
multiplication of
electrons in detector
Detection of individual events, i.e.
alpha or beta particles & secondary
electrons, for measuring activity (in
samples or on surfaces) & detecting
low intensities of ambient x or gamma
radiation; precautions required due to
energy dependence.
Solid state diodes Ionization of
semiconductor
Detection & energy measurement of
photons or particles; primarily for
laboratory use.
Scintillators Ionization & excitation
followed by light emission
Detection of individual events;
Photographic film Ionization of Ag Br Personal exposure monitoring.
Thermoluminescent
detector (TLD)
Excitation of crystal;
light release by heating
Personal and environmental
exposure monitoring.
Radiation Detection Instruments

Biological
effect of
Radiation
Biological effect: Radiation
Because of the many factors involved in
radiation exposure (length of exposure,
intensity of the source, energy and type of
particle), it is difficult to quantify the specific
dangers of one radioisotope versus another.

Radiation doses of 600 rem and higher are
invariably fatal, while a dose of 500 rem kills
half of the exposed subjects within 30 days.

Smaller doses (< 50 rem) appear to cause
only limited health effects, may cause long-
term health problems such as cancer.
The tissues most affected by large,
whole-body exposure are bone
marrow, intestinal tissue, hair follicles
and reproductive organs, all which
contain rapidly dividing cells.
The suscepceptibility of rapidly
dividing cells to radiation exposure
explains why cancers are often
treated by radiation.
The effects of a single radiation dose on a 70 kg
human
Dose, rem Symptoms/ Effects
<5 No observable effect
5-20 Possible chromosomal damage
20-100 Temporary reduction in white blood cell
count
50-100 Temporary sterility in men (up to a year)
100-200 Mild radiation sickness, vomiting,
diarrhea, fatigue. Immune system
suppressed and bone growth in children
retarded.
>300 Permanent sterility in women
>500 Fatal to 50% within 30 days.
>3000 Fatal within hours
Appliacation:
Nuclear Chemistry
Application: Nuclear
Chemistry
Radioactive Tracers
Agriculture:
To detect how readily a plants takes in phosphate and
identify which part of the plant accumulate the phosphates.
Medicine:
To detect suspected brain tumours and blood clots.
Radio therapy for cancers and X-rays.
To provide diagnostic information about the functioning of a
person's specific organs, or to treat them. (technetium-99)
Isotopes used in Medicine:
Radiotherapy
Type of Isotopes Uses
Bismuth-213 (46
min)
Used for targeted alpha therapy (TAT),
especially cancers
Chromium-51 (28
day)
Used to label red blood cells and quantify
gastro-intestinal protein loss.
Cobalt-60 (5.27 yr) Used for sterilising bandages and
dressings.
Dysprosium-165 (2
hr)
Used as an aggregated hydroxide for
synovectomy treatment of arthritis.
Erbium-169 (9.4 d) Use for relieving arthritis pain in synovial
joints.
Engineers:
To measure how fast engine wear out to trace
obstructions in oil gas or water pipes.
To detect the leakages of pipes laid underground.

Sterilisation:
-rays are used to sterilise bandages, dressings
syringes and others equipment that must be germ-
free.

Food preservation:
Fruits and foodstuffs are irradiated to increase their
shelf-life.
Potatoes treated with low doses of radiation can be
stopped from sprouting.




Thank You!