THE COMPOSITION OF AIR

Air is everywhere around us

Air cannot be seen because it is colourless.

However, we can feel the movement of air or wind
around us

We can also feel air moving in and out of our nose
when we breathe

Living things need air in order to live

Air is one of the most important resources that
sustain life
NITROGEN
Nitrogen is an inactive gas
Nitrogen is colourless, has no smell and no
taste, does not support combustion.
OXYGEN
Oxygen is necessary for respiration, burning,
rusting and decay
Oxygen is set free during the process of
photosynthesis
INERT GASES
Inert gases in air are helium, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon and radon
Inert gases are very inactive
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide is released during
respiration, burning and decay
Carbon dioxide is absorbed by green plants
during photosynthesis
Contents Percentage (%)
Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Inert gases 0.9
Water vapour, dust,
microorganisms
variable
Content of air and its percentage
Properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide
ACTIVITY OXYGEN CARBON
DIOXIDE
Water level in test
tube goes up a
little
Slightly soluble in
water
Water level in test
tube goes up
slightly higher
More soluble in
water than oxygen
Nothing happens
Not soluble in
sodium hydroxide
solution
Level of solution
in test tube is high
Very soluble in
sodium hydroxide
solution
Properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide
ACTIVITY OXYGEN CARBON
DIOXIDE
Light up the
glowing split
Support
combustion
Puts out the
glowing splinter
Does not support
combustion
The lighted split
burns more
brightly
Supports
combustion
Puts out burning
splinter
Does not support
combustion
Properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide
ACTIVITY OXYGEN CARBON
DIOXIDE
Nothing happens
No effect on
litmus paper
A neutral gas
Blue litmus
paper; Change to
red
Red litmus
paper; no change
of colour
An acidic gas
No change Lime water turns
chalky
Properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide
ACTIVITY OXYGEN CARBON
DIOXIDE
Nothing happens
No effect on
bicarbonate
indicator
Change the
colour of
bicarbonate
indicator from red
to yellow
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are both colourless and
ouderless gases
TEST FOR OXYGEN
Glowing wood splint that bursts into flame shows
the existence of oxygen
TEST FOR CARBON DIOXIDE
Comparison of the Properties of Oxygen and
Carbon Dioxide
Summary of the Properties of
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
OXYGEN IS NEEDED IN RESPIRATION
Respiration begins with every breath you take
Products of respiration are energy, carbon
dioxide and water vapour
During respiration, living things use oxygen
and give out carbon dioxide
The energy produced is use by the cells to carry
out living processes
1. After some time, the marker moves towards
i) the germinating seeds in test tube W
ii) the grasshopper in test tube X
Living things use oxygen during respiration
2. The marker in test tube does not move at all
3. This shows that the germinating seeds and
grasshopper use up oxygen in the test tube and give
out carbon dioxide which is absorbed by the
sodium hydroxide solution
4. This causes a decrease in the volume of air inside
the test tube, causing the marker to move inwards
5. Test tube Y is a control
Inhaled and Exhaled Air in Humans
In the process of breathing, air from the surrounding is
inhaled or sucked into the lungs. This air is known as
inhaled air
Inhaled air
Air that is exhaled or breathed out from the lungs is
known as exhaled air
Exhaled air
A comparison of inhaled and exhaled air is shown bellow
OXYGEN IS NEEDED FOR COMBUSTION
1. Combustion
(i) commonly known as burning
(ii) A chemical reaction of a substance with oxygen
(iii) Give out heat and light
(iv) Take place when oxygen, fuel and heat are
present

1. Air pollution occurs when the atmosphere contains
pollutants

2. Air pollutants are harmful chemicals or substance
present in the air

3. They can affect human beings and the environment
in a negative way

4. Examples of air pollutants are smoke, carbon
monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, lead
and chlorofluorocarbon
THE SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Life without
clean air
BLURRED
VISION
e.g. dust or
smoke in
the air
blurs vision
HEALTH PROBLEMS
e.g. lead causes blood
poisoning and
brain damage
DEFORMITIES
e.g. radioactive
waste causes
deformities
in urborn babies
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
e.g. man will live
in a warmer environment
A REDUCTION IN
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
e.g. sticks to leaves and slows
down the process of photosynthesis
ACID RAIN
e.g. metal objects
corrode and the pH of
soil and water
sources is lowered
EXAMPLES OF WAYS TO KEEP THE AIR CLEAN
1. Use unleaded fuels
2. Use public transport when available.
3. Avoid open burning. Burn plastic waste in
incinerators
4. Plant trees in your surroundings
5. Reduce, reuse and recycle used items whenever
possible. Buy and use recycled products
6. Buy and use products in their non-aerosol form.
Propellants used in aerosol cans contribute to
pollution
FORMS OF ENERGY
1. Energy is the ability to do work

2. The unit of energy is the joule (J)

3. There are various forms of energy:-
- potential energy
- kinetic energy
- heat energy
- light energy
- chemical energy
- sound energy
- electric energy
- nuclear energy
POTENTIAL ENERGY
1. Potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to
its elevated position, or its condition when the object is:-
a) lifted up
b) compressed
c) stretched
d) bent

2. Examples of objects that contain potential energy:-
The water at the top
of a waterfall
A boy walking up a staircase
gains potential energy
A bent plastic ruler
A stretched cord
of a bow
A compressed
spring
A wound spring
of a toy car
A stretched
rubber band
KINETIC ENERGY
1. Kinetic energy is present in any object that is moving

2. Kinetic energy enables things to move

3. Examples of things that have kinetic energy are
A spinning fan A flying bird A moving car A moving hammer
A flying aeroplane
A falling coconut
A swinging pendulum A spinning top A boy running
HEAT ENERGY
1. Heat energy is the energy found in hot objects
2. Heat energy is released when we burn fuels such as
charcoal, firewood, petrol and natural gas
3. The sun is our main source of heat energy
4. Heat energy can be detected by our skin
5. Examples of heat energy are given below
Burning wood Hot water Hot iron Gas stove and
heated pot
LIGHT ENERGY
1. Objects that produce light are said to have light energy
2. The sun is our main source of light energy
3. Light energy can be detected by our eyes
4. Green plants use light energy from the sun to carry out
photosynthesis
lighted candle lighted lamp lightning sun
SOUND ENERGY
1. All sounds and noises are forms of energy
2. Without sound energy, the world would be silent
3. Sound energy is produced when objects vibrate
4. Sound energy is energy we can hear
5. Examples of objects that produce sound energy are:-
television phone ringing radio
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
1. Electrical energy is the energy that makes electrical
appliance such as computer, televisions, fans, washing
machines and radios work
2. Electrical energy is a very useful form of energy as
many things cannot function without it
television radio computer fan
NUCLEAR ENERGY
1. Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an
atom
2. One way in which nuclear energy is released is when
one big atom is split into many smaller atoms

3. Examples of objects that contain or release nuclear
energy are:-
a) atomic bomb
b) nuclear reactor in electricity-generating power
station
4. Nuclear energy is used to generate electrical energy
CHEMICAL ENERGY
1. Chemical energy is the energy stored in chemical
substances
2. Substances which contain chemical energy include
a) chemical substances such as hydrochloric acid and
batteries
b) foods such as glucose, bread and rice
c) fuel such as coal, charcoal, petrol and diesel
VARIOUS SORCES OF ENERGY
ENERGY CHANGES
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
2. Energy can change from one form to another
3. We use an energy converter to change energy from one
form into another
4. The energy converter changes one form of energy into
another form that is needed to do a certain work
5. Examples:-
1. GREEN PLANTS
1. Green plants are natural energy converters
2. The change light energy from the sun into
chemical energy
3. The chemical energy is stored in various part of
the plants such as leaves, stems, roots and fruits
Light energy chemical energy
2. FAN
1. A fan changes electrical energy into kinetic
energy
Electrical energy kinetic energy
3. TELEVISION
1. A television changes electrical energy into light
energy and sound energy
Electrical energy Light + Sound energy
4. RADIO
1. A radio changes electrical energy into sound
energy
Electrical energy sound energy
5. IRON
1. An iron changes electrical energy into heat energy
Electrical energy heat energy
SOURCES
OF ENERGY
FOSSIL FUELS
Coal
Petroleum
Natural gas
WATER
(HYDROELECTRIC
ENERGY)
GEOTERMAL
ENERGY
WIND ENERGY
BIOMASS ENERGY
ENERGY FROM
RADIOACTIVE
SUBSTANCCES
WAVE ENERGY
SOLAR ENERGY
THE SUN AS THE PRIMARY SOURCE OF
ENERGY
1. The primary source of energy is
the sun
2. Most of the energy sources on the
Earth originate from the sun
indirectly
Light
Heat
Plant
Animals
Photosynthesis
Chemical energy
Eaten by
Die and decay
Electrical energy
Solar cells
causes
Rain / River
Heat energy
Electrical energy
Hydro electric
power station
Solar panels causes
Wind
Wave
causes
Heat energy
Wave energy
The Sun as Our Source of Energy
RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
1. The sources of energy in the world can be classified into
two groups
a) Renewable energy sources
b) Non-renewable energy sources

2. Renewable energy sources can be replenished or
renewed when they have been used

3. Non-renewable energy sources cannot be replenished or
renewed and will eventually be used up and exhausted
4. The chart below shows the classification of energy
sources
Sources of energy
Renewable energy sources Non-Renewable energy sources
Sun
Wind
Waves
Tides
Water
Biomass
Geothermal
Fossil fuels (coal,
petroleum, natural gas)
Radioactive substances
(Nuclear energy)
Advantage and disadvantage of different energy
sources
ENERGY
SOURCES
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Hydroelectric
energy
The electricity
produced is cheap
and does not
pollute the
environment
Dams and power
stations are expensive to
build
Only suitable in
mountainous areas with
good rainfall
Wind energy Does not pollute
the environment
Wind turbines stop
working if there is no
wind
ENERGY
SOURCES
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Wave energy Does not pollute
the environment
Only generates
electricity twice a day
during high and ebb
tides
Biomass
energy
Reduces
environment
burdens
Releases gases such as
carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxide which
pollute the environment
Solar energy Can be produced
continuously
Does not pollute
the environment
Cannot work at night or
only operates during the
day while the sun is
shining
ENERGY
SOURCES
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Firewood Can be used in
areas that lack
energy supply for
cooking
Releases smoke which
pollutes the environment
Geothermal
energy
Does not pollute
the environment
Only available where
hot water is located close
to the earths surface
Fossil fuel High energy
value
Produces gases which
are poisonous and forms
acid rain such as sulphur
dioxide
ENERGY
SOURCES
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Radioactive
substance
Very high energy
value
Gives off harmful
radiation which can
cause cancer
Very expensive to build
power stations
Sources of energy
Pollute the environment Do not pollute the environment
Fossil fuels (coal,
petroleum, natural gas)
Radioactive substances
(nuclear energy)
Biomass
Firewood
Hydroelectric energy
Wind energy
Wave energy
Solar energy
Geothermal energy
Sources of energy that pollute and do not pollute the
environment are shown in the chart on the following page
THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVING ENERGY
SOURCES
Why do we need to conserve energy?
1. Fossil fuels are the most widely used fuels in the world

2. Motor vehicles and electrical power generators run on
fossil fuels

3. As fossil fuels are non-renewable, it is very important
for us to conserve energy so that Earths reserve of
fossil fuels will be able to sustain our needs for a longer
period of time
How can we help to conserve energy?
1. We can help to conserve energy by
Using less energy

Reducing energy wastage

Using energy efficiently
Use Energy
Efficiently
Use energy-
saving bulbs
Car pool
with your
friends
Use energy-
saving electrical appliances
Do not place your
refrigerator near the stove
Clean your vacuum
cleaner filter after use
Iron your clothes all
at one time
2. Some of the ways we can use energy efficiently are
The importance of conserving energy sources
1. We should use and manage energy sources carefully by
practising good habits such as
Using public transport
Car-pooling
Switching off electrical appliances when
not using them
Ensuring water taps tightly shut so that no
water drips from them
Recycling materials
Reusing materials
Reducing the use of materials
HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY
The Sun gives out heat
1. Heat is a form of energy
2. The sun is the primary source of heat energy
3. We feel hot when we stand under the sun because it
gives out heat
Other Sources of Heat
1. Heat is also produced by:
- rubbing or friction
- burning
- collision
- electricity
HEAT
1. Heat is a form of energy
2. When heat energy is supplied to a substance, the
temperature of the substance will rise
Uses of Heat
1. Heat is very useful to us
2. Heat is used for:
- drying
- cooking
- ironing
- keeping warm
- boiling
TEMPERATURE
1. Temperature is the measure of the degree of hotness of a
substance

2. Temperature is not a measure of the quantity of heat in
a substance

3. Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or
coldness

4. The unit for temperature is degrees Celsius (
o
C)

5. Hot substances have high temperatures whereas cold
substances have low temperatures
The differences between heat and temperature
Heat Temperature
is a form of energy is the degree of hotness of
a substance
is measured in the joule
(J)
is measured in the kelvin
(K)
is the total amount of
kinetic energy of the
particles
tell us how fast the
particles are moving
HEAT FLOW AND ITS EFFECT
Expansion and Contraction
1. Matter is made up of particles
2. When matter is heated, the particles receive energy and
move faster. This causes the distance between particles
to increase
3. The volume increases and the matter expands
4. When matter is cooled, the particles lose energy and
move more slowly. The particles become closer to one
another. The volume decrease and matter contracts
To study the heating and cooling effects on the volume
of solids
Condition of metal ball observation
Hot Metal ball cannot pass through
the ring
Cold Metal ball passes through the
ring
Conclusion : A metal ball expands when heated and
contracts when cooled
5. The summary about the expansion and
contraction of matter shown in the chart
below
HEAT FLOW
1. Heat can flow from one place to another
2. It can flow in three different ways
- by conduction through solids
- by convection through liquids or gases
- by radiation through empty space
Conduction
1. When heat flows through solids, the process of heat
transfer is called conduction
2. Conduction requires a medium for the heat energy to
pass through
3. Heat passes through a metal rod when one end of it is
heated in a flame.
4. Examples:-
a) heat from a fire passes through the frying pan to
cook food
b) a metal spoon in the hand becomes warm after
sometime because heat from the body passes to the
metal spoon to warm it
c) a chair becomes warm after a person has sat on it
for some time. Heat from the body passes to the
chair to warm it
d) the handle of a spoon becomes warm after some
time if the spoon is left in a cup of hot water. This
means that heat from the water passes through the
spoon to the hand
Convection
1. Convection is the transfer of heat in fluids (liquids and
gases) carried out by moving particles

2. Hot fluids become less dense and move upwards

3. Cold fluids that are denser move down to replace the
hot fluids

4. An convection current is produced in this way

5. In the process of convection, heat is transferred
upwards only

6. The fluids from hot areas move to cold areas
Radiation
1. Heat travels through empty space (vacumm) as
radiation or heat rays
2. Heat rays are electromagnetic waves
3. They travel very fast through space
4. This is how heat from the Sun reaches the Earth
5. All hot substances give out energy as radiation
6. The radiation moves in every direction
Comparison between conduction, convection and radiation
Conduction Convection Radiation
Medium for
the process
Solid Fluid (liquid or
gas)
Solid, liquid or
gas
Takes place
in vacumm
No No Yes
Speed Slow Faster than
conduction
Very fast
Way heat
transfer
takes place
Heat is
transferred
from particles
through
vibration
Heat is
brought by the
heated
particles that
move upward
Heat moves in
the form of
waves in a
straight line
Heat Flow in Natural Phenomena
Land breezes
1. Land breezes blow during the night
2. At night, the land loses heat faster than the sea
3. Thus, the land becomes cooler than the sea
4. The warm air above the surface of the sea becomes less
dense and rises
5. The air above the land that is denser (cooler) flows in
the direction of the sea, causing what is known as a land
breeze
Sea breezes
1. Sea breezes blow during the day
2. During the day, the land heats up faster than the sea
3. As a result, the air on land becomes less dense and rises
4. The cooler air over the sea which is denser (cooler) flows
in to take the place off the warm air, causing what is
known as a sea breeze
The warming of the earth by the sun
1. The heat from the sun reaches the earth by radiation
through a vacum in space (no medium)
2. The radiant heat which is absorbed heats up the earth
heat transmission
SUN EARTH
Heat Conductor
1. Substances that conduct heat are called conductors of
heat
2. Some substances conduct heat readily. They are called
good conductors of heat
3. All metals such as iron, magnesium, aluminium and
zinc are good conductors of heat
The uses of heat conductors
The bottom of an electric iron is
made of metals so that it can
heat up quickly
1. Electric iron
Cooking utensils such as kettles, pots
and pans are made from metals like
aluminium, copper and iron
Food can be cooked quickly or water
can be boiled quickly
2. Cooking utensils
3. Thermometer
Mercury in the bulb expands
and contracts quickly
1. Substances that conduct heat poorly are insulators or
called bad conductors of heat
2. Non-metals such as glass, wood, cork, air, water and
wool are insulators
Heat insulator
The uses of heat insulators
1. Igloo - Eskimos live in igloos
- The heat in the igloo is constant because ice
is a poor conductor of heat

2. Glass rods Glass rods are used to stir hot liquids

3. Handles of kettles, irons and cooking utensils
- handles of kettles, irons and cooking utensils such as
frying pans are made of wood, plastic or cork
EFFECT OF HEAT ON MATTER
1. Matter exists in three states
i) solids
ii) liquids
iii) gases
2. Matter can change from one state to another
3. The change in states of matter involves the absorption
and release of heat
4. The change in states of matter takes place through
physical processes such as:-
- melting
- boiling
- freezing
- evaporation
- condensation
- sublimation
1. MELTING
1. The solid particles absorb heat energy and vibrate
faster in their positions
2. When they have absorbed enough energy, they will
move freely from their positions to form a liquid
2. BOILING
1. The liquid particles absorb heat energy and move faster
2. They also become further apart
3. When they have absorbed enough heat energy, they will
move very fast and at random to form a gas
4. The temperature at which a liquid start to boil is called
its boiling point
3. EVAPORATION
1. Evaporation is the process where a liquid changes into
the gaseous state without heating
2. Heat is absorbed during the process
3. Evaporation can take place at any temperature
4. CONDENSATION
1. The gas particles release heat energy to their
surroundings
2. They move slower and closer until they form a liquid
5. FREEZING
1. The liquid particles release heat energy to the
surroundings
2. They move slower and closer until they form a solid
6. SUBLIMATION
1. Sublimation is the process where a solid changes into
the gaseous state without going through the liquid state
when heated
2. Heat is absorbed during this process
3. Sublimation is also the process where a gas changes into
the solid state without going through the liquid state
when cooled
4. Heat is released during this process
sublimation
sublimation
sublimation
condensation
melting freezing
boiling / evaporation
sublimation
The changes in state of matter
Physical processes involved in the change in states of matter
Physical
process
Change in state
of matter
Heat
absorbed
or released
Examples
Melting Solid Liquid Absorbed Ice melts to
become water
Freezing Liquid Solid Released Water freezes
to become ice
Boiling Liquid Gas Absorbed Water boils to
become steam
Evaporation
(A process where
a liquid changes
into the gaseous
state without
heating)
Liquid Gas Absorbed Water
evaporates to
become water
vapour
Physical
process
Change in state
of matter
Heat
absorbed
or released
Examples
Condensation Gas Liquid Released Steam
condenses to
become water
Sublimation
(A process
where a solid
changes into
the gaseous
state without
going through
the liquid
state)
Solid Gas




Gas Solid
Absorbed




Released
Dry ice
sublimates to
become
carbon
dioxide gas

Iodine vapour
sublimates to
become iodine
crystals
Changes in the state of matter in everyday life
1. Ice melts at room temperature
2. Water boils when heated
3. Water freezes to form snow during winter in cold
climates
4. Salt is formed from the evaporation of sea water
5. Dry sublimates at room temperature
6. When wet clothes dry in the sun, the water in the
clothes evaporate
7. Water vapours in clouds condense to form rainwater
Applying the Principle of Expansion and
Contraction of Matter
1. Mercury in thermometer






Mercury is a good heat conductor
Mercury expand evenly when heated and contracts
evenly when cooled
2. Bimetallic strip in a fire alarm








A fire alarm is used to warn of a fire taking place
When heated, the bimetallic strip expands and curves
towards the screw to complete the electrical circuit
The bell will ring to sound a warning
3. Rollers of steel bridges






Modern bridges are mostly of concrete and steel
The bridges expand on hot days and contract on cool
days
The allow for movement when a steel bridge expands or
contracts, one of its end is fixed while the other end is
free to move over rollers
This will prevent the bridges from bending and
breaking up
4. Gaps in railway tracks









The gaps between the ends of rail tracks enable the iron
tracks to expand on a hot day
The use of the principle of expansion and contraction
of matter in solving simple problem
1. Bottle cap










Bottle cap that a tight can be loosened by immersing in
hot water for a few minutes to make it expand