ENDOSKELETON OF

VERTEBRATES
Axial Skeleton
COMPONENTS OF THE ENDOSKELETON
CARTILAGE CHONDROGENESIS
BONES OSTEOGENESIS
DIVISIONS:
1.) AXIAL VERTEBRAE, RIBS, SKULL, HYOID
BONE, STERNUM, JAW
2.) APPENDICULAR LIMBS, GIRDLES, FINS
BASIC STRUCTURE OF A VERTEBRAE

1.) ATYPICAL VERTEBRATE
2.) TYPICAL VERTEBRATES
A. NEURAL SPINE
B. TRANSVERSE PROCESS
C. NEURAL CANAL
D. CENTRUM
VERTEBRAE, RIBS AND STERNAE

1.) ARCH 1 OR 2
ARCHES NEURAL ARCH SPINAL CORD
FORMS THE HAEMAL CANAL WHICH ENCLOSED
THE CAUDAL ARTERY AND VEINS

2.) PROCESSES PROJECTIONS ARCHES
CENTRA

3.) CENTRUM BODY OF VERTEBRATES

PROCESSES
PROJECTIONS FROM ARCHES AND CENTRA

1.) DIAPHOPHYSIS LATERAL PROJECTIONS (TRANSVERSE
PROCESS)

2.) ZYGAPOPHYSIS ARTICULATION BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE VERTEBRAE
A. PREZYGAPOPHYSIS-DIRECTED ANTERIORLY
B. POSTZYGAPOPHYSIS-DIRECTED POSTERIORLY

3.) PARAPOPHYSIS - LATERAL PROJECTIONS FROM THE CENTRA OF FEW
TETRAPODS
CENTRA OF BICIPITAL RIB (2 HEADED RIBS)

ZYGAPOPHYSIS
DIAPOPHYSIS
4. )HYPAPOPHYSES MIDVENTRAL
PROJECTIONS FROM THE CENTRA OF THE
SNAKES AND AMNIOTES
- SITES OF ATTACHMENT FOR CERTAIN
MUSCLES AND TENDONS

5.) BASOPOPHYSES CENTRA OF
FISHES

HYPAPHOPHYSIS
TYPES OF CENTRUM (BODY)

1.) AMPHICOELOUS CONCAVE AT BOTH ENDS
- EX. FISHES, TELEOSTS
- CENTRUM IS OCCUPIED BY
SOFT NOTOCHORDAL TISSUE
2.) PROCOELOUS CONCAVE ANTERIORLY, CONVEX
POSTERIORLY
- EX. FROGS
3.) OPISTHOCOELOUS CONCAVE POSTERIORLY,
CONVEX ANTERIORLY
- EX. REPTILES SALAMANDERS
ACOELOUS
HETEROCOELOUS
AMPHICOELOUS
OPISTHOCOELOUS
4.) HETEROCOELOUS SADDLE SHAPED
CENTRUM
EX.CERVICALVERTEBRAE OF BIRDS

5.) ACOELOUS FLAT CENTRUM AT THE
BOTH ENDS
EX. MAN
VERTEBBRAE SKULL:

3 BASIC COMPONENTS

1.) NEUROCRANIUM CHONDROFACATON/ ENDOSKELETON
(PRIMARY BRAINCASE)

2.) DERMATOCRANIUM ROOFING BONES

3.) SPLANCHNOCRANIUM VISCERAL SKELETON
1.) FLOOR OF THE SKULL
2.) ROOF
3.) JAWS


I. FUNCTIONS OF THE NEUROCRANIUM


1.) PROTECTS THE BRAIN AND SENSE ORGAN

2.) ARISES AS CARTILAGE TO FACILITATE HEAD
CIRCUMFERENCE REDUCTION DURING PARTURITION

3.) OSSIFY PARTLY OR WHOLLY AS HARD BONE


CARTILALIGINOUS STAGE OF SKULL


1.) PARACHORDAL CARTILAGE ANT. END OF THE
NOTOCHORD BENEATH THE MIDBRAIN
- INCORPORATED TO THE NOTOCHORD
TO FORM BASAL PLATE (SINGLE, BROAD
CARTILAGE)

2.) PRECHORDAL CARTILAGE
- UNDERNEATH THE FOREBRAIN
- EXPANDS AND UNITE ACROSS THE
MIDLINE AT THE ANT. ENDS THEN FORM
ETHMOID PLATE (FLOOR OF THE SKULL)
SENSE CAPSULES:

1.) OLFACTORY (NASAL) CAPSULE
SURROUNDING THE OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM

2.) OTIC CAPSULE COMPLETELY
SURROUNDING THE OTOCYSTS W/C
IS THE DEVELOPING INNER EAR
FORAMINA - TRANSMITS NERVES AND
VASCULAR CHANNELS
3. OPTIC CAPSULE
- FORMS AROUND THE RETINA,ACT
AS AN ORBIT
- THE SCLEROTIC COAT OF THE
EYEBALL
- DOES NOT FUSE WITH THE RETINA
OF THE NEUROCRANIUM, THUS
THE EYEBALL IS FREE TO MOVE
INDEPENDENTLY OF THE SKULL
- EYE MOVEMENTS:
A. SACCADIC C. CONJUGATION
B. PURSUIT D. FIXATION
SCLERAL RINGS
- surrounds the eye and maintain the
shape of the eyeball
SCLERA white of the eye, protected by
sclerotic coat
PLICAE SEMILUNARIS - third eyelid that
corresponds to the nictitating membrane of
the frogs eye
HYPOPHYSEAL FENESTRA accomodates the
hypophysis and the internal carotid arteries
PRECHORDAL CARTILAGE- trabeculae cranii





OSSIFICATION CENTERS
1. OCCIPITAL CENTER
- the 4 bones surrounding the foramen
magnum
- 2 exoccipital, 1 basioccipital, 1 supraoccipital
- in man, these 4 bones unite to form the occipital bone
with occipital condyles
- in modern amphibians, one or more of these bones remain
cartilaginous

2. SPHENOID CENTER underlying the brain
- BASISPHENOID - ALISPHENOID
- PRESPHENOID - PLEUROSPHENOID
- ORBTIOSPHENOID
- In man, these bones are fused forming the single sphenoid bone
- in frogs, parasphenoid is the only ossified bone
3. ETHMOID CENTER
- SPHENETHMOID in frogs, the sole bone
arising from ethmoid and sphenoid
- MESETHMOID contributes to the
cartilaginous nasal septum in birds and
mammals
- ECTHETHMOID develop from nasal
passageway of sphenodon
- TURBINAL BONES (CHONCHAE)
- walls of the nasal passageways of crocodilians,
birds, and mammals
- CRIBRIFORM PLATE in mammals, this is perforated
by olfactory foramina which transmit bundles of
olfactory nerve fibers from olfactory epithelium to
the brain




4. OTIC CENTER
- bones forming the ears
a. prootic c.epiotic
b. opisthotic d. periotic
- in birds and mammals, the 3 bones are
fused
- in reptiles, opisthotic fused to exoccipital
- periotic and squamosal temporal bone
DERMATOCRANIUM
- Bones closed the Skull (Dermal Bones)
- Forms to the top side of the skull
- Function: For Protection, serve as roof of the skull
- Components:
1. Roofing Bones Fronto Parietal
2. Primary Bone of the Palate
3. Dermal Bone of the Jaw
4. Opecular Bone Fishes
- Supraopercular - Preopercular
- Interopercular - Large Opercular
UPPER JAW
- Palaquadrate Cartilage Ossify to form the right and
left jaw
In Fishes Remains of cartilage for Chondrichthyes
& for osteichthyes they Ossify to form the
Quadrate bone.
Maxillae & Premaxillae ToothBearing of Bones
Primary Palatal Bone Roof of the Dropharyngeal
cavity of the fishes & of the
oral cavity of tetrapods.

Contd..

Components:
1. Parasphenoid Unpaired Bone
2. Vomers
3. Palatine
4. Pterygoids
5. Ectopherygoids
6. Choanae Internal Nares
FUSION OF NEUROCRANIUM AND
DERMATOCRANIUM
1. FISHES
- Cyclostomes and Amia remains
cartilaginous
- Garfishes ossifies
- Roofing Bones of the bony Fishes
1. frontal
2. supraoccipital
3. parietal
4. postemporal
2. AMPHIBIANS
- Anurans and urodeles, the
neurocranium remains cartilaginous
-in apodans, it is ossified for burrowing
- anurans are with platybasic skull
3. REPTILES
- with ossified neurocranium, dentary,
and occipitals
- temporal fossae a partial complete
secondary palate
- temporal fenestra cavernous opening of
temporal region of amniotes

TYPES OF TEMPORAL FOSSAE
1.ANAPSIDS no temporal fossae
- ex. Dinosaurs
2.SYNAPSIDS with one temporal fossae
- ex. Extinct reptiles
3.DIAPSIDS - with 2 temporal fossae
- living reptiles,crocodiles,sphenodon
4. EUROPSIDS with one lateral temporal
fossae
- ex. Extinct reptiles
*** TURTLE- with enigmatic skull
- no temporal fossae, loss dermal bones
4. AVES
- ossified bone, bulging outward
forming TROPIBASIC SKULL
- bones forming the beaks
- upper jaw
* maxillae,premaxillae,nasals
- lower jaw
* dentary
- 2 functional regions of the skull
1. solid bony box
(neurocranium & dermatocranium)
- houses the brain,olfactory organs, eyeball,
and hearing and equilibrium complex

2. elongated beak
- procuring and handling area

4. MAMMALS
- skulls are with fontannels
- modifications:
1. dentary forms the mandible
- the only movable
bone of the lower jaw
2. temporal region 2
3. altered side secondary palate
- pterygoid bone
- auditory ossicles
* malleus, incus,
stapes
CRANIAL KINESIS
The independent movement of parts of the
skull
The condition in which snakes swallow food
due to presence of ectopterygoid bone
In mammals ectopterygoid is lost, the styloid
process is left, located in the visceral skeleton
III. SPLANCHNOCRANIUM
Skeleton of the pharyngeal arches
In fishes the skeleton of jaws, gill
arches
The balstemas are from the neural
crests and arise from the
neuroectoderm
MODIFICATION OF THE
SPLANHCNOCRANIUM
1. CYCLOSTOMES
- unique visceral skeleton
- no palatoquadrate or merkels cartilage
- a cartilaginous branchial basket
located at the base of the skin of the
pharyngeal arch
2. BONY FISH
- visceral skeleton resembles that of the shark except that
is ossifies
- hyoid arc consist of a larger number of components
TYPES OF JAW SUSPENSION
A.HYOSTYLIC fishes
- hyomandibular cartilage is braced
against the otic capsule
- posterior end of the palatoquadrate is
braced against the hyomandibula
B. AMPHISTYLIC older sharks
- hyomandibula and one or more
processes of palatoquadrate are
braced independently against the braincase
C. AUTOSTYLIC - lungfishes and tetrapods
- palatoquadrate is attached independently
against the braincase

HYOSTYLIC JAW
AMPHISTYLIC JAW
AUTOSYSTYLIC JAW
AUTOSTYLIC JAW
3. AMPHIBIANS
- Palatoquadrate is enclosed by the membrane bone
and its caudal end become quadrate bone
Merkels cartilage are invested, caudal ends become
the articular bone
In anurans, hypomandibula become the columella &
the remainder of the 2
nd
,3
rd
,part of the 4
th
arch
become the HYOID SKELETON
4
TH
& THE 5
TH
become the cartilage of the larynx
4. MAMMALS
- Articular and quadrate bones become ossicles of
the middle ear (malleus and incus)