Network Review

Polytechnic University M.
Veeraraghavan 1
Review of networking concepts
Prof. Malathi Veeraraghavan
University of Virginia
Polytechnic University M. Veeraraghavan 2
Outline
Review of basic concepts in networking
Prerequisite: A first course on networking
Communication links and switches
Types of networks
Shared links: media access control (MAC)
What is a
communication network?
Simplest network
Single link between two pieces of end-user
equipment (e.g., PC, telephone)
End-user
equipment
End-user
equipment
Types of communication links
Twisted pair
Coaxial cable
Optical fiber
Wireless links
Radio frequencies
Infra-red frequencies
What is needed to send data on
communication links?
Error control
Error detection:
Parity checks, Checksum, Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC)
Error correction:
ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest)
FEC (Forward Error Correction)
Flow control: handles rate mismatch between
sender and receiver
x-ON/x-OFF
Window based flow control
Rate based flow control
Switches
Connect multiple links and route traffic
from one link to another
End-user
equipment
End-user
equipment
End-user
equipment
End-user
equipment
Switch
Why use a switch?
If there are N endpoints (end-user
equipment), then how many links are
needed for full mesh connectivity?
How many physical links are needed if
these endpoints are connected through a
switch?
Answers
Number of direct links needed to connect N
nodes is
N links since we only need one link from
an endpoint to a switch
2
) 1 ( N N
Cost of using a switch?
Switch cost
Can all endpoints have full connectivity at
all times to all other endpoints?
Yes, with multiplexing on the links

Concept of multiplexing
Time division multiplexing
Allows data from different sessions to be
combined at different times on to the same line
How many DS0s in a T1?
Wavelength division multiplexing
Difference between FDM (Frequency Division
Multiplexing) and WDM?
Relation between frequency and wavelength
Answers
24 DS0s in a T1
Term WDM is the same as FDM at optical
frequencies see EM spectrum chart
Speed of light c = f
: wavelength; f: frequency
Transceiver rate
Rate of transmission and reception at
endpoints and the switch
Needs to be sufficient for full mesh
connectivity all the time
e.g., if DS0s used between endpoints in full
mesh network, then T1s can be used in 25
endpoint network with a switch for full mesh
connectivity
Types of switches
Circuit switches: Position-based switching
Switch consults a table to determine output port on which to send
data bits based on their arriving position
Position: Interface (space), time slot and/or wavelength
Space division switch: switch based on input interface
Time division switching: interface + time slot
Wavelength division switching: interface + wavelength
No buffers
Packet switches: Label-based switching
Switch consults a table to determine output port on which to send
the packet based on value of label (in packet header)
Label could be changed on outgoing port or could stay the same
Have buffers to hold packets
Switch designs
See lectures on circuit switching and packet
switching in Course on Data Networks
Compare unfolded view of a CS with that of
a PS
See relevance of queueing theory to delays
of calls or packets through switches
Network of switches
Expand 1-switch network to a multi-switch
network
Why not build one gigantic switch?
Scalability limitations
End-user
equipment
End-user
equipment
Switch
Switch
End-user
equipment
Switch
Different types of networks
A network is defined by its switching mode and its networking mode
Circuit switching vs. packet switching
Circuit-switching: switching based on position (space, time, ) of arriving bits
Packet-switching: switching based on information in packet headers
Connectionless vs. connection-oriented networking:
CL: Packets routed based on address information in headers
CO: Connection set up (resources reserved) prior to data transfer
Packet-switching
Circuit-switching
Switching modes
Connectionless
Connection-oriented
Networking modes
ATM, X.25
IP, SS7
MPLS
IP + RSVP
Telephone network,
SONET/SDH, WDM
Types of data transfers
Sending end
Consuming end
Live
Stored
Live
Stored
Interactive/
Live streaming
Recording
Stored streaming File transfers
An application could consist of different types of data transfers
An http session has an interactive component, but could also
have a non-real-time transfer
Types of data transfers
Sending end
Consuming end
Live
Stored
Live
Stored
Interactive/
Live streaming
Recording
Stored streaming File transfers
An application could consist of different types of data transfers
An http session has an interactive component, but could also
have a non-real-time transfer
Matching applications & networks
Data transfers
Non-real-time
(stored at sender and receiver ends)
Real-time
(consumed or sent live)
Interactive (two-way)
(consumed and sent live)
e.g. telephony, telnet, ftp, http
Streaming (one-way)
(consumed live;
sent from live or stored source)
e.g. radio/TV broadcasts
Recording (one-way)
(stored at receiver end;
sent from live source); e.g. Replay
Short transfers
(e.g. short email)
Long transfers
(e.g. large image,
audio, video or data)
Ideal networks
Connectionless
networks
Circuit-switched
networks
Packet-switched CO networks
Congestion control
What is it?
The purpose of a network is to allow sharing of
resources
This means if demand is high, there could be
competition for resources from multiple users
What are network resources:
Link capacity (bandwidth)
Switch buffer space (only in packet switches)
Congestion control
In CO networks
Congestion control: mostly preventive
Connection Admission Control (CAC)
Check availability of bandwidth and buffer resources before
admitting a connection
CS CO networks: congestion will not occur once circuits are
admitted
PS CO networks: congestion can occur after connection is
admitted if connection admission is based on statistical
multiplexing
Have some supplemental reactive congestion control scheme
Congestion control
In CL networks
Have packet switches detect congestion and
send reactive messages asking sender to slow
down
e.g., datagram routers in SS7 networks send
such messages; SRP (Spatial Reuse Protocol)
switches in 802.17 MANs send such messages
IP routers implement Explicit Congestion
Notification (ECN) procedures
End-to-end path
Transport protocols
Ensure reliable transfer across a communication
path consisting of many links (zero loss)
OR ensure delay-controlled path across a
communication path consisting of many links
Error control and flow control
Delay control (e.g., RTP)
Congestion control and connection control
special in TCP
Applications
Most Internet applications are client-server based
Web server
End-user
equipment
Network
Web clients
(Usually runs
on fixed hosts)
Network
Network
End-user
equipment
Email-sending clients
(outlook, messenger)
Outgoing
email servers
(pop, imap)
Network
End-user
equipment
Email-receiving clients
(outlook, messenger)
Incoming
email servers
(smtp)
Protocol Stacks
OSI model: two more layers between AL and TL
Session layer and presentation layer
PHY: Physical; DLL: Data Link Layer; NL: Network Layer; TL: Transport Layer;
AL: Application Layer
DLL
NL
TL
AL
PHY
Endpoint
Switch
NL
DLL
PHY PHY
DLL
DLL
IP
TCP/UDP
AL
PHY
Endpoint
Switch
NL
DLL
PHY PHY
DLL
Example protocols
AL protocols: http, smtp, ftp, PCM voice
TL protocols: TCP, UDP, RTP, AAL
NL protocols: IP, ATM
DLL protocols: PPP, HDLC
PHY protocols: DS0, DS1
Ethernet: PHY+DLL+NL
Functions of protocol layers
PHY: sends bits across a link
DLL: error control and flow control on a
link
NL: switching (routing), multiplexing,
congestion control
TL: error control and flow control on an
end-to-end basis
AL: Functions specific to the application
Congestion control and
connection control in TCP
IP routers did not implement ECN until recently
TCP performs congestion control
Senses whether network switches (routers) are congested or not
Adjusts rate accordingly
Slow start and congestion avoidance
Concept of a connection at the TL
End hosts maintain state information regarding a TCP connection
to track sequence numbers and ACKs
Connection open (SYN) and close (FIN) procedures
Contrast with a connection at the NL, where each switch
maintains state about the connection
User plane, control plane, and
management plane
Management plane: consists of all the protocols needed to configure
data tables for the operation of the network
For example, protocols for routing data dissemination (distributed or
centralized)
Other functions: performance, fault mgmt., accounting, security
Control plane:
Connection control protocols
in CO networks, this includes connection setup at each switch (connections at
the network layer)
in CL networks, this includes connection setup only at the endpoints
(connections at the transport layer, if the TL protocol is reliable)
Call control protocols
User plane: protocols for the actual flow of data
Routing protocol in all three types of
networks - Phase 1
Host A
Host B
I
IV
V
III
II
Routing
protocol
Routing
protocol
Routing
protocol
Dest. Next hop
III-* IV
Dest. Next hop
III-* III
Dest. Next hop
B B
Routing tables
Routing protocols exchange
topology/loading/reachability information
Routes to destinations are precomputed and stored in
routing tables
Signaling protocol for NL connection setup in
a PS CO network - Phase 2
Connection setup consists of each switch on the path
Route lookup for next hop node to reach destination
CAC (Connection Admission Control) for buffer and BW
Writing the input/output label mapping tables and programming the scheduler
Host A
Host B
I
IV
V
III
II
Connection
setup
Connection
setup
a
b
c
a
b
c
d
d c
a
b
IN
Port /Label
OUT
Port/Label
a/L1
c/L2
IN
Port /Label
OUT
Port/Label
a/L2
c/L1
IN
Port /Label
OUT
Port/Label
d/L1
b/L3
Connection
setup (B)
Connection
setup
Virtual circuit
Signaling protocol for NL connection setup in
a CS CO network - Phase 2
Connection setup consists of each switch on the path
Route lookup for next hop node to reach destination
CAC (Connection Admission Control) for BW (note: no buffers)
Writing the port/timeslot/ mapping table
Host A
Host B
I
IV
V
III
II
Connection
setup
Connection
setup
a
b
c
a
b
c
d
d c
a
b
IN
Port /Timeslot
OUT
Port/Timeslot
a/1
c/2
IN
Port /Timeslot
OUT
Port/Timeslot
a/2
c/2
IN
Port /Timeslot
OUT
Port/Timeslot
d/2
b/1
Connection
setup (B)
Connection
setup
Circuit
TL connection setup in a CL PS
network - Phase 2
Notion of transport layer connections
Exchange initial sequence numbers end-to-end to allow for ARQ
(Automatic Repeat reQuest) based error correction, i.e., retransmissions in
case of errors
Host A
Host B
I
IV
V
III
II
Dest. Next hop
B II
Dest. Next hop
B III
Dest. Next hop
B B
Routing tables
SYN
SYN
ACK
User-plane packet forwarding in a PS
CO network - Phase 3
Labels are VPI/VCIs in ATM
Labels are translated from link-to-link
Host A
Host B
I
IV
V
III
II
a
b
c
a
b
c
d
d c
a
b
L2
L1
L1
L3
IN
Port /Label
OUT
Port/Label
a/L1
c/L2
User-plane actions in a circuit-switched
network - Phase 3
Bits arriving at switch I on time slot 1 on
port a are switched to time slot 2 of port c
Host A
Host B
I
IV
V
III
II
a
b
c
a
b
c
d
d c
a
b
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
OUT
Port/Timeslot
IN
Port /Timeslot
a/1
c/2
User-plane packet forwarding in a CL PS
network - Phase 3
Packet headers carry destination host address (unchanged
as it passes hop by hop)
Each CL packet switch does a route lookup to determine
the outgoing port/next hop node
Host A
Host B
I
IV
V
III
II
a
b
c
a
b
c
d
d c
a
b
B
B
B
B
Addressing
Where are endpoint addresses used:
In CL PS networks, endpoint addresses are
carried in packet headers
In CO networks, be it PS or CS, endpoint
addresses are carried in connection setup
messages
Summarized addresses
What are summarized addresses?
Why summarize addresses?

Summarized addresses
What are summarized addresses?
An address that represents a group of endpoint
addresses
e.g., all 212 numbers, 128.238 IP addresses
Why summarize addresses?
Reduces routing table sizes hold one entry for a
summarized address instead of a large number of
individual addresses
Reduces routing message lengths that convey
reachability information
Examples of signaling protocols
SS7 (Signaling System No. 7) network
(with its SS7 protocol stack) carries
signaling messages to set up and release
circuits in a telephone network

Examples of routing protocols
In an Ethernet network
Spanning tree algorithm and address learning
In the Internet:
Link-state routing protocols, such as Open Path
Shortest First (OSPF)
Distance-vector based routing protocols, such as
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
In telephone networks:
Real-Time Network Routing (RTNR)
Examples of addressing schemes
Internet
4-byte IP addresses
Telephone networks
8-byte E.164 address (telephone number)
ATM networks
20-byte ATM End System Address (AESA)
Broadcast links
Wireless
Copper: ethernet hubs
Optical fiber: Passive star couplers
Ethernet hub
or
WDM Passive Star Coupler
Blind broadcast
Ethernet switch
(packet switch)
Dest: A
A
MAC protocols
Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols are used in broadcast links
to allow a node to access medium and send information
As if switch is in endpoints
Wasteful of resources because all endpoints receive all packets
End-user
equipment
A
End-user
equipment
B
End-user
equipment
C
To B
To B
Bs MAC layer checks destination address to
determine whether the packet should be switched to
the application or dropped
Cs MAC layer checks destination address to
determine whether the packet should be switched to
the application or dropped
Consider wireless links
Naturally broadcast medium
One transmitter sends data; multiple receivers
can receive the signal and obtain the data
Need a MAC (Medium Access Control)
protocol to share the naturally broadcast
wireless medium
Endpoint
Endpoint
Endpoint
Shared links in wired domain
Distance limitation between farthest hosts
Shannons capacity; SNR; attenuation
outbound
inbound
Multipoint drops: potential
interference on inbound line
polling; e.g. multidrop telephone
lines
Hub or optical
passive star coupler
Host Host Host
Hubs/Optical passive star couplers: any
data received on one line is broadcast to
all other lines
Classification of
MAC protocols
MAC protocols
Fixed-assignment
schemes
Random-access
schemes
Demand
assignment
schemes
Circuit-switched
(e.g., FDMA,
TDMA)
Connectionless
packet-switched
(e.g., Ethernet,
802.11)
Connection-oriented
packet-switched
(e.g., CDMA, polling)
Channelization
Shared link as a LAN:
relation between MAC protocols and LANs
A shared link allows multiple end stations to hear
a transmission from any station
No node is serving as a forwarding engine for
packets in a controlled fashion
hubs, passive star couplers, ring adapters, taps blindly
send data UNLIKE switches, routers, bridges
This shared link concept works well as a local area
network
if too large a network with many hosts each host
will get a small percentage of bandwidth
Shared links as access links
Two reasons for using shared links on the
access segment
individual endpoints (hosts/phones) generate
small quantities of data traffic
Costs should be kept low for end users
Consequence: access links are often shared
MAC protocols in the upstream direction
Shared link in the presence of
basestations/APs?
Is it still one shared link if basestations/APs forward data between two
endpoints that cannot hear each other
No, basestations/APs become forwarding engines, i.e., switches
If a cell phone under one basestation calls another cell phone under
the same basestation and the basestation allocates frequencies for
both ends and forwards data bits
Not different from a circuit switch forwarding bits received on
one DS0 to another DS0
Same thing when an AP uses destination addresses to rebroadcast
data it acts as a packet switch
Compare TDMA on an access link with
TDM on an inter-switch link
Similar in concept: sharing resources on one link among many users
Difference:
Multiple senders on access link
One sender in each direction on inter-switch link
Basestation
Endpoint Endpoint Endpoint
Timeslot 1 Timeslot 2 Timeslot 3
Circuit
switch
Circuit
switch T1 line
carrying
24 different DS0s
(phone calls)
Internetworking
An internet
A path that traverses multiple networks
possibly ones using different networking
techniques
Simplest network one link
Endpoint Endpoint
Endpoint
Endpoint
Endpoint
Endpoint
Switch Switch
One network same type of switches link rates can be different
Single networks
Endpoint
Endpoint
Endpoint
A shared link:
often used to
create a LAN
Endpoint
Endpoint
Switch Switch
Network 1
Endpoint
Endpoint
Switch Switch
Network 2
IP router
An internetwork
The Internet approach to
internetworking
Have all endpoints speak the IP (Internet Protocol) in addition to their own
network protocols
For loss-sensitive applications: run TCP, an end-to-end transport protocol,
irrespective of whether
both ends are within the same network
the two ends are on different networks
IP routers are connectionless packet switches
they forward IP packets from one network to another based on the destination IP
address carried in the IP header and information stored in their routing tables
Network 3

Network 1
Network 2
T1
Inter-T:TCP
Inter-N: IP
A
N1
L1
P1
N1

L3
P3
T1
N2

L4
P4
T2
Inter-N: IP

IP router
routerrouter
N1

L2
P2 P3
N1

L1 L2
P1 P2
N2

L5 L6
P5 P6
N2

L4 L5
P4 P5
T2
Inter-T:TCP
Inter-N: IP
A
N2
L6
P6
Switch Switch
Switch Switch
Endpoint Endpoint
L3
Protocol stacks in the Internet
Todays most common networks
in the Internet
Ethernet within enterprises using a combination of
shared-medium Ethernet LANs with hubs, or
with Ethernet switches which are connectionless
packet switches
PDH/SONET networks in the MAN and WAN
domains
Routers are interconnected by T1, T3, OC3 connections
that are set up through a PDH/SONET circuit-switched
network
PPP, Point-to-Point Protocol, is executed on these
circuits
Need Internet address and
Network address
Host A
Host B
Switch
1
Switch
2
Ethernet 1
Host C
Host D
Switch
3
Switch
4
Ethernet 2
IP router
Internetwork
Host E
Host F
Switch Switch
Ethernet 3
Host A sends a packet to Host C:
- Places Host Cs IP address in IP header
- To get through Ethernet 1, it needs Ethernet address of IP routers
interface 1
- Switch 1 and Switch 2 forward packets based on destination Ethernet
address of IP routers interface 1
- IP router forwards packet to port 2 to reach Host C (based on IP level
routing data using destination IP address of host C)
- IP router needs Ethernet address of Host C to send the packet through
Ethernet 2
- Switch 3 and 4 forward packets based on destination Ethernet address
of Host C
1
2
3
Summary
Reviewed networking concepts

Network Review

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