CS 9059

Mobile Computing

Unit II
Mobile Networks
GSM

GRPS

Cellular Wireless Networks

GSM: Overview
GSM
formerly: Groupe Spciale Mobile (founded 1982)
now: Global System for Mobile Communication
Pan-European standard (ETSI, European
Telecommunications Standardisation Institute)

Today many providers all over the world use GSM
(219 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, America)
more than 4.2 billion subscribers in more than 700
networks
more than 75% of all digital mobile phones use GSM
GSM: Overview
GSM operates
GSM 900MHz
Uplink : 890 - 915 MHz
Downlink: 935 -960 MHz

GSM 1800MHz(DCS)
Uplink : 1710- 1785 MHz
Downlink: 1805-1880 MHz

GSM 1900MHz (PCS)
Uplink : 1850- 1910 MHz
Downlink: 1930 - 1990 MHz

GSM: Mobile Services

GSM offers
Voice
Data services

Three basic types of services
Bearer Services
Tele Services
Supplementary Services
Bearer Services
Telecommunication services to transfer data between access
points
It permits
Transparent
Non Transparent
Synchronous
Asynchronous
It supports different data rates
synchronous: 1.2, 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
asynchronous: 300 - 9600 bit/s
Tele Services
Telecommunication services that enable voice communication
via mobile phones
Offered services
Mobile telephony
Emergency number
Multinumbering
Additional services
Non-Voice-Teleservices
Short Message Service (SMS)
Extended Message Service (EMS)
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)
group 3 fax

Supplementary Services
Services in addition to the basic services, cannot be offered
stand-alone
Important services
Multiparty Service or conferencing
Call Waiting
Call Hold
Call Forwarding
Call Barring
User Identification
Closed User Groups (CUGs)
Architecture of the GSM system
NSS
MS MS
BTS
BSC
GMSC
IWF
OMC
BTS
BSC
MSC MSC
A
bis

U
m

EIR
HLR
VLR VLR
A
BSS
PDN
ISDN, PSTN
RSS
radio cell
radio cell
MS
AUC
OSS
signaling
O
Architecture of the GSM system
GSM is a PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)
subsystems
RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects
NSS (network and switching subsystem): call
forwarding, handover, switching
OSS (operation subsystem): management of the
network
Radio subsystem
It comprises all radio specific entities.
Components
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
Maintain radio connections to MS, Coding & decoding of
voice
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
Contains radio equipments
Base Station Controller (BSC)
Manages BTS, Reserves radio frequencies, Handle handover.
Mobile Stations (MS)
User equipment (IMEI) & Software
SIM- PIN, PUK, Authentication key Ki, IMSI
- TMSI, Location area Identification (LAI)


Network and Switching Subsystem
NSS is the main component of the public mobile network
GSM
switching, mobility management, interconnection to
other networks
Components
Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
switching functions
additional functions for mobility support
management of network resources
interworking functions via Gateway MSC (GMSC)
integration of several databases

Network and switching subsystem
Home Location Register (HLR)
- All user relevant information
Static Information (MSISDN,IMSI)
Dynamic information (LA, MSRN)

Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Dynamic database( information needed for the MS
currently in the LA)
Operation subsystem
The OSS (Operation Subsystem) enables centralized
operation, management, and maintenance of all GSM
subsystems
Components
Authentication Center (AUC)
Used to protect user identity & data transmission
generates user specific authentication parameters on request of a
VLR, algorithms, keys for encryption.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
stolen or malfunctioning mobile stations can be locked and
sometimes even localized
Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
Traffic monitoring, status reports, subscriber & security
management, accounting & billing
Architecture of the GSM system
Interfaces

A
bis
: standardized, open interface with 16 kbit/s user
channels
A: standardized, open interface with 64 kbit/s user
channels
O Interface
U
m
: radio interface
Provides mechanism necessary for wireless transmission (mux
&MAC)

Um-Radio Interface :
GSM - TDMA/FDMA
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
higher GSM frame structures
935-960 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
downlink
890-915 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
uplink
time
GSM TDMA frame
GSM time-slot (normal burst)
4.615 ms
546.5 s
577 s
tail user data Training S
guard
space
S user data tail
guard
space
3 bits 57 bits 26 bits 57 bits 1 1 3
Um-Radio Interface : GSM - TDMA/FDMA
Synchronization Burst

Access Burst (initial connection MS-BTS)

Frequency Correction Burst

Dummy burst
Um- Logical Channels
Two basic groups of logical channels
Traffic Channels (TCH)
- Transmission of user data
Full-rate channels (TCH/F) 22.8 kbps
Half-rate channels (TCH/H) -11.4 kbps
Um- Logical Channels
Control Channels (CCH)
- control medium access & allocation of channels
Broadcast control channel (BCCH)
- signal information to all MS within a cell
Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)
Synchronization Channel (SCH)
Common Control Channel (CCCH)
- Connection setup information.
- Paging Channel (PCH)
- Random Access Channel (RACH) :setup call MS-BS
- Access Grant Channel (AGCH) : Signal BS-MS



Um- Logical Channels

- Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
- Bidirectional channel
Stand alone dedicated control channel (SDCCH)
- authentication
Slow Associated dedicated control channel (SADCCH)
- exchange system information channel quality &
signal power level
Fast Associated dedicated control channel (FADCCH)
- Large data in less time


GSM protocol layers for signaling
CM
MM
RR
MM
LAPD
m

radio
LAPD
m

radio
LAPD
PCM
RR BTSM
CM
LAPD
PCM
RR
BTSM
16/64 kbit/s
U
m
A
bis
A
SS7
PCM
SS7
PCM
64 kbit/s /
2.048 Mbit/s
MS
BTS BSC MSC
BSSAP
BSSAP
GSM protocol layers for signaling
The protocol in GSM is structured into three general layers,
depending on the interface.

Layer 1: The physical layer handles radio specific functions
Uses GMSK modulation
Tasks: channel coding & error correction & detection,
VAD

Layer 2: The data-link layer.
is a modified version of the Link access protocol for the D channel &
the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used
Reliable transfer, flow control, segmentation & Reassembly

GSM protocol layers for signaling
Layer 3: The third layer divided into three sublayers:

Radio Resource management (RR)
- Connection Setup, maintenance & release of radio channels

Mobility Management (MM)
- Registration, authentication, identification, location updating

Call Management (CM).
- Point to point connection between two terminals

Localization
To locate & to address MS
MSISDN
CC, NDC & SN
IMSI
MCC,MNC,MSIN
TMSI
MSRN
VCC,VNDC
Mobile Terminated Call
MS
PSTN
calling
station
GMSC
HLR VLR
BSS BSS BSS
MSC
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
8 9
10
11 12
13
16
10
10
11 11 11
14 15
17
Mobile Terminated Call
1: calling a GSM subscriber
2: forwarding call to GMSC
3: signal call setup to HLR
4, 5: request MSRN from VLR
6: forward responsible
MSC to GMSC
7: forward call to
current MSC
8, 9: get current status of MS
10, 11: paging of MS
12, 13: MS answers
14, 15: security checks
16, 17: set up connection

Mobile Originated Call
PSTN
GMSC
VLR
BSS
MSC
MS
1
2
6 5
3 4
9
10
7 8
Mobile Originated Call
1, 2: connection request
3, 4: security check
5-8: check resources (free circuit)
9-10: set up call
Message flow for MTC / MOC
BTS MS
paging request
channel request
immediate assignment
paging response
authentication request
authentication response
ciphering command
ciphering complete
setup
call confirmed
assignment command
assignment complete
alerting
connect
connect acknowledge
data/speech exchange
BTS MS
channel request
immediate assignment
service request
authentication request
authentication response
ciphering command
ciphering complete
setup
call confirmed
assignment command
assignment complete
alerting
connect
connect acknowledge
data/speech exchange
MTC MOC
Handover
- Process of changing the BTS.

Reasons
MS moves out of the range of BTS
due to load balancing

Types of handover
1
MSC MSC
BSC BSC BSC
BTS BTS BTS BTS
MS MS MS MS
2 3 4
1.Intra cell handover
2.Inter-cell, intra BSC
handover
3.Inter BSC, inter
MSC handover
4.Inter MSC handover
Handover Decision
receive level
BTS
old

receive level
BTS
new

MS MS
HO_MARGIN
BTS
old
BTS
new

Handover procedure
BTS
old
BSC
new

BSC
old
MSC
MS BTS
new

HO access
measurement
result
Link establishment
measurement
report
HO decision
HO required
HO request
resource allocation
ch. activation
ch. activation ack
HO request ack
HO command
HO command
HO command
HO complete
HO complete
clear command
clear command
clear complete
clear complete
Security in GSM
It offers security services using the confidential information
stored in the AuC and in SIM.
Services offered by GSM are
access control/authentication
Authentication of a valid user
confidentiality
Voice and signaling encrypted on the wireless link
(after successful authentication)
anonymity
temporary identity TMSI
(Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity)
newly assigned at each new location update (LUP)
encrypted transmission
Security in GSM
3 algorithms specified in GSM
A3 for authentication
A5 for encryption
A8 for key generation
GSM - authentication
A3
RAND K
i

128 bit 128 bit
SRES* 32 bit
A3
RAND K
i

128 bit 128 bit
SRES 32 bit
SRES* =? SRES
SRES
RAND
SRES
32 bit
mobile network
SIM
AC
MSC
SIM
K
i
: individual subscriber authentication key SRES: signed response
GSM - key generation and encryption
A8
RAND K
i

128 bit 128 bit
K
c

64 bit
A8
RAND K
i

128 bit 128 bit
SRES
RAND
encrypted
data
mobile network (BTS)
MS with SIM
AC
BSS
SIM
A5
K
c

64 bit
A5
MS
data data
cipher
key
GPRS
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
Packet switching
Transmits information in packets
Goal : cheap & efficient Internet service
Radio channels are shared by multiple users
Creative billing options (e.g. volume based
charging)
Always on, always connected
GPRS architecture and interfaces
MS
BSS GGSN SGSN
MSC
U
m

EIR
HLR/
GR
VLR
PDN
G
b
G
n
G
i

SGSN
G
n

GPRS architecture and interfaces
GPRS network elements
GSN (GPRS Support Nodes): GGSN and SGSN
GGSN (Gateway GSN)
interworking unit between GPRS and PDN (Packet
Data Network)
SGSN (Serving GSN)
supports the MS (location, billing, security)
GR (GPRS Register)
Tracks the user location, collecting billing
information, security functions
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

Perform mobility management for GPRS terminals
(attach/detach, user authentication, ciphering, location
management)
Manage the logical link to mobile terminals (packet traffic,
SMS traffic, layer 3 signaling)
Route packets between mobile terminals and the GGSN
Charging information

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
Function as a gateway router between SGSN and external
networks
Authenticate users to external networks
Assign or obtain from external packet network PDN addresses
to mobile terminals
Charging information

GPRS protocol architecture
apps.
IP/X.25
LLC
GTP
MAC
radio
MAC
radio
FR
RLC BSSGP
IP/X.25
FR
U
m
G
b
G
n

L1/L2 L1/L2
MS
BSS SGSN GGSN
UDP/TCP
G
i

SNDCP
RLC BSSGP IP IP
LLC UDP/TCP
SNDCP GTP
Principles of Cellular Networks
Underlying technology for mobile phones,
personal communication systems, wireless
networking etc.
Developed for mobile radio telephone
Replace high power transmitter/receiver systems
Typical support for 25 channels over 80km
Use lower power, shorter range, more transmitters
Cellular Network Organization
Multiple low power transmitters
100w or less
Area divided into cells
Each with own antenna
Each with own range of frequencies
Served by base station
Transmitter, receiver, control unit
Adjacent cells on different frequencies to avoid
crosstalk


Shape of Cells
Square
Width d cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at
distance d
Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Hexagon
Provides equidistant antennas
Radius defined as radius of circum-circle
Distance from center to vertex equals length of side
Distance between centers of cells radius R is R
Not always precise hexagons
Topographical limitations
Local signal propagation conditions
Location of antennas
2
3
Cellular Geometries
Frequency Reuse
Power of base transceiver controlled
Allow communications within cell on given frequency
Limit escaping power to adjacent cells
Allow re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
Use same frequency for multiple conversations
10 50 frequencies per cell
E.g.
N cells all using same number of frequencies
K total number of frequencies used in systems
Each cell has K/N frequencies
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) K=395, N=7 giving 57
frequencies per cell on average
Characterizing Frequency
Reuse
D = minimum distance between centers of cells that use the same
band of frequencies (called cochannels)
R = radius of a cell
d = distance between centers of adjacent cells (d = R)
N = number of cells in repetitious pattern
Reuse factor
Each cell in pattern uses unique band of frequencies
Hexagonal cell pattern, following values of N possible
N = I
2
+ J
2
+ (I x J), I, J = 0, 1, 2, 3,
Possible values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21,
D/R=
D/d =

N 3
N
Frequency
Reuse
Patterns
Increasing Capacity (1)
Add new channels
Not all channels used to start with
Frequency borrowing
Taken from adjacent cells by congested cells
Or assign frequencies dynamically
Cell splitting
Non-uniform distribution of topography and traffic
Smaller cells in high use areas
Original cells 6.5 13 km
1.5 km limit in general
More frequent handoff
More base stations
Cell Splitting
Increasing Capacity (2)
Cell Sectoring
Cell divided into wedge shaped sectors
3 6 sectors per cell
Each with own channel set
Subsets of cells channels
Directional antennas
Microcells
Move antennas from tops of hills and large buildings
to tops of small buildings and sides of large buildings
Even lamp posts
Form microcells
Reduced power
Good for city streets, along roads and inside large
buildings
Frequency Reuse Example
Operation of Cellular Systems
Base station (BS) at center of each cell
Antenna, controller, transceivers
Controller handles call process
Number of mobile units may in use at a time
BS connected to mobile telecommunications switching
office (MTSO)
One MTSO serves multiple BS
MTSO to BS link by wire or wireless
MTSO:
Connects calls between mobile units and from mobile to fixed
telecommunications network
Assigns voice channel
Performs handoffs
Monitors calls (billing)
Fully automated
Overview of Cellular System
Channels
Control channels
Setting up and maintaining calls
Establish relationship between mobile unit and
nearest BS
Traffic channels
Carry voice and data
Typical Call in
Single MTSO Area (1)
Mobile unit initialization
Scan and select strongest set up control channel
Automatically selected BS antenna of cell
Usually but not always nearest (propagation anomalies)
Handshake to identify user and register location
Scan repeated to allow for movement
Change of cell
Mobile unit monitors for pages (see below)
Mobile originated call
Check set up channel is free
Monitor forward channel (from BS) and wait for idle
Send number on pre-selected channel
Paging
MTSO attempts to connect to mobile unit
Paging message sent to BSs depending on called mobile number
Paging signal transmitted on set up channel
Typical Call in
Single MTSO Area (2)
Call accepted
Mobile unit recognizes number on set up channel
Responds to BS which sends response to MTSO
MTSO sets up circuit between calling and called BSs
MTSO selects available traffic channel within cells and notifies
BSs
BSs notify mobile unit of channel
Ongoing call
Voice/data exchanged through respective BSs and MTSO
Handoff
Mobile unit moves out of range of cell into range of another cell
Traffic channel changes to one assigned to new BS
Without interruption of service to user
Call Stages
Other Functions
Call blocking
During mobile-initiated call stage, if all traffic channels busy, mobile
tries again
After number of fails, busy tone returned
Call termination
User hangs up
MTSO informed
Traffic channels at two BSs released
Call drop
BS cannot maintain required signal strength
Traffic channel dropped and MTSO informed
Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber
MTSO connects to PSTN
MTSO can connect mobile user and fixed subscriber via PSTN
MTSO can connect to remote MTSO via PSTN or via dedicated lines
Can connect mobile user in its area and remote mobile user
Mobile Radio
Propagation Effects
Signal strength
Strength of signal between BS and mobile unit strong enough to
maintain signal quality at the receiver
Not strong enough to create too much cochannel interference
Noise varies
Automobile ignition noise greater in city than in suburbs
Other signal sources vary
Signal strength varies as function of distance from BS
Signal strength varies dynamically as mobile unit moves
Fading
Even if signal strength in effective range, signal propagation
effects may disrupt the signal
Design Factors
Propagation effects
Dynamic
Hard to predict
Maximum transmit power level at BS and mobile units
Typical height of mobile unit antenna
Available height of the BS antenna
These factors determine size of individual cell
Model based on empirical data
Apply model to given environment to develop guidelines
for cell size
E.g. model by Okumura et al refined by Hata
Detailed analysis of Tokyo area
Produced path loss information for an urban environment
Hata's model is an empirical formulation
Takes into account variety of environments and conditions
Fading
Time variation of received signal
Caused by changes in transmission path(s)
E.g. atmospheric conditions (rain)
Movement of (mobile unit) antenna
Multipath Propagation
Reflection
Surface large relative to wavelength of signal
May have phase shift from original
May cancel out original or increase it
Diffraction
Edge of impenetrable body that is large relative to wavelength
May receive signal even if no line of sight (LOS) to transmitter
Scattering
Obstacle size on order of wavelength
Lamp posts etc.
If LOS, diffracted and scattered signals not significant
Reflected signals may be
If no LOS, diffraction and scattering are primary means
of reception
Reflection, Diffraction,
Scattering
Effects of Multipath
Propagation
Signals may cancel out due to phase differences
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
Sending narrow pulse at given frequency between
fixed antenna and mobile unit
Channel may deliver multiple copies at different times
Delayed pulses act as noise making recovery of bit
information difficult
Timing changes as mobile unit moves
Harder to design signal processing to filter out multipath
effects
Two Pulses in Time-Variant
Multipath
Types of Fading
Fast fading
Rapid changes in strength over distances about half wavelength
900MHz wavelength is 0.33m
20-30dB
Slow fading
Slower changes due to user passing different height buildings,
gaps in buildings etc.
Over longer distances than fast fading
Flat fading
Nonselective
Affects all frequencies in same proportion
Selective fading
Different frequency components affected differently
Error Compensation
Mechanisms (1)
Forward error correction
Applicable in digital transmission applications
Typically, ratio of total bits sent to data bits between 2 and 3
Big overhead
Capacity one-half or one-third
Reflects difficulty or mobile wireless environment
Adaptive equalization
Applied to transmissions that carry analog or digital information
Used to combat intersymbol interference
Gathering the dispersed symbol energy back together into its
original time interval
Techniques include so-called lumped analog circuits and
sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms
Error Compensation
Mechanisms (2)
Diversity
Based on fact that individual channels experience independent
fading events
Provide multiple logical channels between transmitter and
receiver
Send part of signal over each channel
Doesnt eliminate errors
Reduce error rate
Equalization, forward error correction then cope with reduced
error rate
May involve physical transmission path
Space diversity
Multiple nearby antennas receive message or collocated multiple
directional antennas
More commonly, diversity refers to frequency or time diversity
Frequency Diversity
Signal is spread out over a larger frequency
bandwidth or carried on multiple frequency
carriers
E.g. spread spectrum (see chapter 9)


First Generation Analog
Original cellular telephone networks
Analog traffic channels
Early 1980s in North America
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
AT&T
Also common in South America, Australia, and
China
Spectral Allocation In North
America
Two 25-MHz bands are allocated to AMPS
One from BS to mobile unit (869894 MHz)
Other from mobile to base station (824849 MHz)
Bands is split in two to encourage competition
In each market two operators can be accommodated
Operator is allocated only 12.5 MHz in each direction
Channels spaced 30 kHz apart
Total of 416 channels per operator
Twenty-one channels allocated for control
395 to carry calls
Control channels are 10 kbps data channels
Conversation channels carry analog using frequency modulation
Control information also sent on conversation channels in bursts as
data
Number of channels inadequate for most major markets
For AMPS, frequency reuse is exploited

Operation
AMPS-capable phone has numeric assignment module
(NAM) in read-only memory
NAM contains number of phone
Assigned by service provider
Serial number of phone
Assigned by the manufacturer
When phone turned on, transmits serial number and phone
number to MTSO (Figure 14.5)
MTSO has database of mobile units reported stolen
Uses serial number to lock out stolen units
MTSO uses phone number for billing
If phone is used in remote city, service is still billed to user's
local service provider
Call Sequence
1. Subscriber initiates call by keying in number and
presses send
2. MTSO validates telephone number and checks user
authorized to place call
Some service providers require a PIN to counter theft
3. MTSO issues message to user's phone indicating traffic
channels to use
4. MTSO sends ringing signal to called party
All operations, 2 through 4, occur within 10 s of initiating call
5. When called party answers, MTSO establishes circuit
and initiates billing information
6. When one party hangs up MTSO releases circuit, frees
radio channels, and completes billing information


AMPS Control Channels
21 full-duplex 30-kHz control channels
Transmit digital data using FSK
Data are transmitted in frames
Control information can be transmitted over
voice channel during conversation
Mobile unit or the base station inserts burst of data
Turn off voice FM transmission for about 100 ms
Replacing it with an FSK-encoded message
Used to exchange urgent messages
Change power level
Handoff

Second Generation CDMA
Higher quality signals
Higher data rates
Support of digital services
Greater capacity
Digital traffic channels
Support digital data
Voice traffic digitized
User traffic (data or digitized voice) converted to analog signal for
transmission
Encryption
Simple to encrypt digital traffic
Error detection and correction
(See chapter 6)
Very clear voice reception
Channel access
Channel dynamically shared by users via Time division multiple access
(TDMA) or code division multiple access (CDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access
Each cell allocated frequency bandwidth
Split in two
Half for reverse, half for forward
Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) (see chapter 9)
Code Division Multiple Access
Advantages
Frequency diversity
Frequency-dependent transmission impairments (noise bursts, selective
fading) have less effect
Multipath resistance
DSSS overcomes multipath fading by frequency diversity
Also, chipping codes used only exhibit low cross correlation and low
autocorrelation
Version of signal delayed more than one chip interval does not interfere
with the dominant signal as much
Privacy
From spread spectrum (see chapter 9)
Graceful degradation
With FDMA or TDMA, fixed number of users can access system
simultaneously
With CDMA, as more users access the system simultaneously, noise
level and hence error rate increases
Gradually system degrades
Code Division Multiple Access
Self-jamming
Unless all mobile users are perfectly synchronized, arriving
transmissions from multiple users will not be perfectly aligned
on chip boundaries
Spreading sequences of different users not orthogonal
Some cross correlation
Distinct from either TDMA or FDMA
In which, for reasonable time or frequency guardbands,
respectively, received signals are orthogonal or nearly so
Near-far problem
Signals closer to receiver are received with less attenuation than
signals farther away
Given lack of complete orthogonality, transmissions from more
remote mobile units may be more difficult to recover

RAKE Receiver
If multiple versions of signal arrive more than one chip interval
apart, receiver can recover signal by correlating chip sequence with
dominant incoming signal
Remaining signals treated as noise
Better performance if receiver attempts to recover signals from
multiple paths and combine them, with suitable delays
Original binary signal is spread by XOR operation with chipping
code
Spread sequence modulated for transmission over wireless channel
Multipath effects generate multiple copies of signal
Each with a different amount of time delay (1, 2, etc.)
Each with a different attenuation factors (a1, a2, etc.)
Receiver demodulates combined signal
Demodulated chip stream fed into multiple correlators, each delayed by
different amount
Signals combined using weighting factors estimated from the channel
Principle of RAKE Receiver
IS-95
Second generation CDMA scheme
Primarily deployed in North America
Transmission structures different on forward
and reverse links
IS-95 Channel Structure
IS-95 Forward Link (1)
Up to 64 logical CDMA channels each occupying
the same 1228-kHz bandwidth
Four types of channels:
Pilot (channel 0)
Continuous signal on a single channel
Allows mobile unit to acquire timing information
Provides phase reference for demodulation process
Provides signal strength comparison for handoff
determination
Consists of all zeros
Synchronization (channel 32)
1200-bps channel used by mobile station to obtain
identification information about the cellular system
System time, long code state, protocol revision, etc.
IS-95 Forward Link (2)
Paging (channels 1 to 7)
Contain messages for one or more mobile stations
Traffic (channels 8 to 31 and 33 to 63)
55 traffic channels
Original specification supported data rates of up to 9600 bps
Revision added rates up to 14,400 bps
All channels use same bandwidth
Chipping code distinguishes among channels
Chipping codes are the 64 orthogonal 64-bit codes derived
from 64 64 Walsh matrix

Forward Link Processing
Voice traffic encoded at 8550 bps
Additional bits added for error detection
Rate now 9600 bps
Full capacity not used when user not speaking
Quiet period data rate as low as 1200 bps
2400 bps rate used to transmit transients in background noise
4800 bps rate to mix digitized speech and signaling data
Data transmitted in 20 ms blocks
Forward error correction
Convolutional encoder with rate
Doubling effective data rate to 19.2 kbps
For lower data rates encoder output bits (called code symbols)
replicated to yield 19.2-kbps
Data interleaved in blocks to reduce effects of errors by spreading
them
Scrambling
After interleaver, data scrambled
Privacy mask
Prevent sending of repetitive patterns
Reduces probability of users sending at peak power at same
time
Scrambling done by long code
Pseudorandom number generated from 42-bit-long shift register
Shift register initialized with user's electronic serial number
Output of long code generator is at a rate of 1.2288 Mbps
64 times 19.2 kbps
One bit in 64 selected (by the decimator function)
Resulting stream XORed with output of block interleaver

Power Control
Next step inserts power control information in
traffic channel
To control the power output of antenna
Robs traffic channel of bits at rate of 800 bps by
stealing code bits
800-bps channel carries information directing mobile
unit to change output level
Power control stream multiplexed into 19.2 kbps
Replace some code bits, using long code generator to
encode bits
DSSS
Spreads 19.2 kbps to 1.2288 Mbps
Using one row of Walsh matrix
Assigned to mobile station during call setup
If 0 presented to XOR, 64 bits of assigned row sent
If 1 presented, bitwise XOR of row sent
Final bit rate 1.2288 Mbps
Bit stream modulated onto carrier using QPSK
Data split into I and Q (in-phase and quadrature)
channels
Data in each channel XORed with unique short code
Pseudorandom numbers from 15-bit-long shift register

Forward
Link
Transmission
Reverse Link
Up to 94 logical CDMA channels
Each occupying same 1228-kHz bandwidth
Supports up to 32 access channels and 62 traffic
channels
Traffic channels mobile unique
Each station has unique long code mask based on
serial number
42-bit number, 2
42
1 different masks
Access channel used by mobile to initiate call, respond to
paging channel message, and for location update

Reverse Link Processing
and Spreading
First steps same as forward channel
Convolutional encoder rate 1/3
Tripling effective data rate to max. 28.8 kbps
Data block interleaved
Spreading using Walsh matrix
Use and purpose different from forward channel
Data from block interleaver grouped in units of 6 bits
Each 6-bit unit serves as index to select row of matrix (2
6
= 64)
Row is substituted for input
Data rate expanded by factor of 64/6 to 307.2 kbps
Done to improve reception at BS
Because possible codings orthogonal, block coding enhances decision-
making algorithm at receiver
Also computationally efficient
Walsh modulation form of block error-correcting code
(n, k) = (64, 6) and d
min
= 32
In fact, all distances 32
Data Burst Randomizer
Reduce interference from other mobile stations
Using long code mask to smooth data out over
20 ms frame
DSSS
Long code unique to mobile XORed with output
of randomizer
1.2288-Mbps final data stream
Modulated using orthogonal QPSK modulation
scheme
Differs from forward channel in use of delay
element in modulator to produce orthogonality
Forward channel, spreading codes orthogonal
Coming from Walsh matrix
Reverse channel orthogonality of spreading codes not
guaranteed

Reverse
Link
Transmission
Third Generation Systems
Objective to provide fairly high-speed wireless
communications to support multimedia, data, and video
in addition to voice
ITUs International Mobile Telecommunications for the
year 2000 (IMT-2000) initiative defined ITUs view of
third-generation capabilities as:
Voice quality comparable to PSTN
144 kbps available to users in vehicles over large areas
384 kbps available to pedestrians over small areas
Support for 2.048 Mbps for office use
Symmetrical and asymmetrical data rates
Support for packet-switched and circuit-switched services
Adaptive interface to Internet
More efficient use of available spectrum
Support for variety of mobile equipment
Flexibility to allow introduction of new services and technologies
Driving Forces
Trend toward universal personal telecommunications
Ability of person to identify himself and use any communication system
in globally, in terms of single account
Universal communications access
Using ones terminal in a wide variety of environments to connect to
information services
e.g. portable terminal that will work in office, street, and planes equally
well
GSM cellular telephony with subscriber identity module, is step
towards goals
Personal communications services (PCSs) and personal
communication networks (PCNs) also form objectives for third-
generation wireless
Technology is digital using time division multiple access or code-
division multiple access
PCS handsets low power, small and light
Alternative Interfaces (1)
IMT-2000 specification covers set of radio interfaces for
optimized performance in different radio environments
Five alternatives to enable smooth evolution from
existing systems
Alternatives reflect evolution from second generation
Two specifications grow out of work at European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
Develop a UMTS (universal mobile telecommunications system)
as Europe's 3G wireless standard
Includes two standards
Wideband CDMA, or W-CDMA
Fully exploits CDMA technology
Provides high data rates with efficient use of bandwidth
IMT-TC, or TD-CDMA
Combination of W-CDMA and TDMA technology
Intended to provide upgrade path for TDMA-based GSM systems
Alternative Interfaces (2)
CDMA2000
North American origin
Similar to, but incompatible with, W-CDMA
In part because standards use different chip rates
Also, cdma2000 uses multicarrier, not used with W-CDMA
IMT-SC designed for TDMA-only networks
IMT-FC can be used by both TDMA and FDMA
carriers
To provide some 3G services
Outgrowth of Digital European Cordless
Telecommunications (DECT) standard
IMT-2000 Terrestrial Radio
Interfaces
CDMA Design Considerations
Bandwidth and Chip Rate
Dominant technology for 3G systems is CDMA
Three different CDMA schemes have been adopted
Share some common design issues
Bandwidth
Limit channel usage to 5 MHz
Higher bandwidth improves the receiver's ability to resolve
multipath
But available spectrum is limited by competing needs
5 MHz reasonable upper limit on what can be allocated for 3G
5 MHz is enoughfordata rates of 144 and 384 kHz
Chip rate
Given bandwidth, chip rate depends on desired data rate, need
for error control, and bandwidth limitations
Chip rate of 3 Mcps or more reasonable
CDMA Design Considerations
Multirate
Provision of multiple fixed-data-rate logical channels to a given user
Different data rates provided on different logical channels
Traffic on each logical channel can be switched independently
through wireless fixed networks to different destinations
Flexibly support multiple simultaneous applications from user
Efficiently use available capacity by only providing the capacity
required for each service
Achieved with TDMA scheme within single CDMA channel
Different number of slots per frame assigned for different data rates
Subchannels at a given data rate protected by error correction and
interleaving techniques
Alternative: use multiple CDMA codes
Separate coding and interleaving
Map them to separate CDMA channels
Time and Code Multiplexing
Required Reading
Stallings chapter 14
Web search on 3G mobile phones