CORROSION

PREVENTION
BY
DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
A good design at the blackboard is no
more costly than a bad design a bad
design is always more expensive than a
good design in reality.

Design has a critical role to play in the
service life of components.

The important point is that the designers
must have an understanding and
awareness of corrosion problems.

More attention is paid to the selection of
corrosion resistant materials for a specific
environment, and a minimal consideration
is given to design, which leads to
equipment failure.

This has been a common observation in
desalination plants in the Gulf region.

We will highlight how corrosion could be
prevented by adopting good design
practices.


SERVICE LIFE OF EQUIPMENT

Selection of a corrosion resistant material for the
environment is a prerequisite to a good design.

Materials and design are complimentary to each
other and neither of the two can be ignored.

The following factors influence the service life of
equipment:
1) Environments and geographic location
2) Selection of materials
3) Maintenance
4) Corrosive environment arid velocity of flow
5) Design
6) Feature promoting corrosion
7) Bimetallic connection.

CAUSES OF FAILURES IN DESIGN CONTEXT

A good engineering design should provide
a maintenance-free service, satisfy the end user, and
provide a maximum return on capital in a shortest return period.

However, there are several areas related to failure as show below.

1) Breakdown of protective system.
Many protective surface treatments, such as coating and welding,
may not be very effective because of the presence of surface
irregularities, voids, surface porosity, undercuts, and general surface
roughness.

The surface heterogeneities act as moisture traps and cause the
damage.

2) Poor fabrication.
Factors, such as improper welding, excessive cold working and
excess machining lead to failure.

3) Lack of accessibility.
In complex systems, machinery, and components, there might be
inaccessible areas due to lack of design insight where it may not be
possible to carry out the corrosion protection measures.

Interiors of car doors are examples which are subjected to intensive
localized corrosion.

Figure 8.3 shows a design which provides adequate air circulation
arid spraying accessibility.

4) Structural heterogeneity in materials.
Joining similar materials with structural differences, such as
differences in thermo-mechanical processing, grain size, number of
impurity elements, grain boundary segregates, may cause deviation
from the performance expected.

5) Operating conditions.
Factors, such as temperature, pressure, arid velocity, influence the
service life if allowed to exceed the prescribed limits.

Consideration of Corrosive Environment

The metal or alloy must have a proven compatibility to
the corrosive environment.

For instance, stainless steel (SS) 316 with 2% Mo is a
better material for seawater service than SS 304 without
molybdenum.

Brass, bronze and copper based alloys are highly
desirable for salt water transportation. However, they are
vulnerable for an environment containing ammonia
frequently encountered in agriculture.

A good design to prevent corrosion must be compatible
with the corrosive environment.
Major Contributors to Corrosive Environments to
Consider in Design:

1) Temperature.
- Temperatures slightly in excess of 50C are observed
in several GCC countries.
- High temperatures in combination with high humidity
produce an accelerating effect on corrosion.
2) Humidity.
Corrosion progresses fast when the relative humidity
exceeds 75%.
3) Rainfall.
Rain can be beneficial or harmful:
- Excess rainfall washes corrosive materials and removes dirt,
debris and other deposits which may initiate corrosion.
- Scanty rainfall may leave water droplets on the surface and lead
to corrosion as salt is present in the air.
- Frequency of rainfall contributes to humidity.
4) Pollution.

Coastal Regions
Atmosphere contains sodium chloride particles plus
others, e.g. sulfur dioxide, sulfurous and sulfuric acid;
among the worst offenders regarding corrosion.
Sources: power stations, refineries, chemical and
metal manufacturing plants. They are abundant in GCC
countries.
Desert
Abundance of sand particles accelerates corrosion
because of the hygroscopic nature of some constituents
of sand particles.

Cold Climate
Presence of sodium chloride which is extensively
used in deicing of roads in Europe and North America.
Use of small amounts can induce high levels of
corrosion in road vehicles.

The atmosphere may also contain other pollutants, such
as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons,
etc.

5) Proximity to Sea.
Seawater is considered to be equivalent to a 3.5%
solution of sodium chloride.

There is abundance of chloride in the marine
environment and in industrial zones located in marine
environment.

A cumulative corrosive effect is caused by both chloride
and sulfur dioxide. Chlorides can absorb moisture at low
relative humidities.

Saturated NaCI solution is in equilibrium with a relative
humidity of 78%.
Saturated ZnCl
2
solution is in equilibrium with only 10%.
Specific Design Items

Design items which affect the rate of corrosion include
the following:

1) Stresses acting on the materials in service.
2) Relative velocity of the medium and obstacles to
flow.
3) Bimetallic contacts.
4) Crevices.
5) Riveted joints.
6) Spacing for maintenance.
7) Drainage and directional orientation of loop.
8) Joints to avoid entrapment.
9) Sharp corners.
10) Non-homogeneous surface.

CONSIDERATION OF AREAS REQUIRING ATTENTION
AT THE DESIGN STAGE

The following are the areas which require attention to
minimize corrosion:
1. Bimetallic contacts 2. Faying surface 3. Crevices
4. Moisture traps 5. Water traps 6. Welds
7. Inaccessibility 8. Areas of condensation
9. Fluid movements
10. Metals in contact with moisture absorbent materials
11. Features which reduce the paint thickness
12. Oil, grease, rust patches
13. Joints: threaded, riveted, screwed
14. Closed sections and entrapment areas
15. Mechanical factors 16. Corrosion awareness

Effects of some factors stated above on design are briefly
described.
To avoid retention of water (moisture) layer on channel surface
in case of bi-metallic contact
Figure 8.24 shows the
suitability of soldering over
threaded joints.
Figure 8.25 shows
comparison of spot welded
joints and riveted. The figure
also illustrates why welded
joints are preferable to riveted.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POOR DESIGN

1- Ignoring Specifications

There is a general trend to use PVC pipes in gas arid
water distribution systems.

Concrete pipes have been used widely for water mains.
There are specifications on soil compaction, the
pressure the pipes can withstand, and the composition of
soils.

Non-adherence of these specifications lead to serious
failures.

Copper pipes are joined in several instances with steel
pipes without proper insulation and coatings which leads
to service problems of galvanic corrosion.
2- Putting Dissimilar Pipes in the Same Trench

Pipes of different materials, such as copper, steel mild
steel and galvanized iron are often buried very close to
each other in the same trench without any concern for
galvanic corrosion.

The copper pipe is coated and insulated to minimize
galvanic corrosion. The mild steel pipe may be protected
by a galvanic anode but this is not cost effective.

Note:
If two pipes are buried in a trench it is likely that they are
bonded together with a metal strap somewhere, which
will thus give a path for electrons and cause galvanic
corrosion.

3- Insulation:
Non-metallic couplings, unions and flange insulation are
widely used for insulating against bimetallic corrosion.
However, they are not always wisely used. All
underground pipes must be insulated from the above-
ground pipes.
Insulators must be installed on distribution mains when
connecting new steel pipes to old steel pipes, when
connecting steel to cast iron and when installing a newly
coated pipeline at every 2000 ft.
When connecting a copper service pipe to a steel main,
insulation is needed where the copper pipe connects
with steel main pipe.
No insulation is necessary when joining a plastic pipe to
steel mains.
ACCESSIBILITY FOR MAINTENANCE / PAINTING

The design must be able to allow easy access to the areas requiring
repair or maintenance.

Appropriate long-life paints should be applied in areas which may
not be accessible for a sufficient length of time.

Figure 8.37 shows access to areas suitable and unsuitable for
painting.

A good design should allow uniform painting to be applied on the
surface. Areas of uneven coating thickness are potential sites for
initiation of corrosion.

Figures 8.38a and b illustrate the point. For uniform coating
application grind all sharp edges and apply an extra coat of paint.
Keep sharp edges to a minimum.
DESIGNS FOR LIQUID CONTAINERS

A good design for liquid container must offer the following:

a) Freedom from sharp corners and edges.
b) Smooth flow of liquid from the container.
c) Freedom from the buildup of water traps around the corners.
d) Complete drainage from the corners without any water traps.

The elimination of water traps is essential to minimize the
formation of differential oxygen cells which lead to corrosion.

As an operational matter, it is essential to remove water and
dry out stainless steel tubing without delay as soon as leak
testing of new water treatment plant is completed; there are
many examples of microbial corrosion causing severe pitting of
new plant soon after leak testing.

e) Minimizing of bimetallic corrosion by joining compatible
materials without the risk of galvanic corrosion.
f) Complete internal and external coating of the containers, if cost
effective.

Some of the above measures to prevent corrosion in
liquid containers are shown in Fig. 8.39.

Figure 8.39(a) shows the best design because of the
capability of the liquid containers for complete drainage
and absence of water traps.

Figures 8.39 (b) and (c) are examples of bad design
because of the incapability for complete drainage and
presence of water and moisture traps around the
corners.

Better designs are shown in Figures 8.39(d) and (e).

Figure 8.40(a) shows a bad design because of the
joining of a copper pipe with the galvanized steel tank.

The copper ions may be plated on the surface of
galvanized steel and lead to pitting.

An aluminum inlet pipe joined to an aluminum tank would
not cause galvanic corrosion (Fig. 8.40b).

The design also offers a good drainage of the liquid. The
design could be further improved by further smoothing
the corners.

A: bad design

B: good design
SELECTION
OF
MATERIALS


MATERIALS EVALUATION AND SELECTION

Material selection is critical to engineering design.

Corrosion may be minimized by employing an
appropriate design (as discussed earlier).

The selection of appropriate materials in a given
environment is a key factor for corrosion control strategy.

The material selected (for specific service conditions)
has to meet the criteria for:

mechanical strength
corrosion resistance, and
erosion resistance


FACTORS AFFECTING
PERFORMANCE OF MATERIALS

The following is a list of factors affecting the performance of materials:


1) Expected performance and functions of the product.

2) Physical characteristics.

3) Strength and mechanical characteristics.

4) Corrosion and wear characteristics.

5) Fabrication parameters.

6) Recycling possibilities.



CORROSION AND WEAR CHARACTERISTICS

Improper selection of materials without consideration of
their corrosion behaviour in aggressive service
environment can lead to premature failure of
components and plant shutdown.

To avoid failures caused by corrosion:

Materials selected should be compatible with the
environment.
They must possess sufficient resistance to corrosion
for the designed life.

Appropriate preventive maintenance practice must be
adopted to maintain the integrity of the
equipment/component.

The selection of materials must be based on an
extensive knowledge of the service environment.

The behaviour of materials largely depends upon the
following:

(a) Corrosive medium parameters (Figure 9.1).

(b) Design parameters
(stresses, bimetallic contacts, crevices, joints, sharp
corners, non-homogeneous surface, etc.).

(c) Materials parameters (NEXT).

Materials Parameters

The following are the material parameters which may affect
corrosion resistance:

1) Impurity segregation on grain boundaries.

This leads to weakening of grain boundaries and
accelerates corrosion attack.

Examples:

In 18-8 steels, depletion of chromium due to formation
of chromium carbide promotes inter-granular attack
(IGA).
The formation of Mg
2
Si at the grain boundaries in Al-Mg
alloys leads to weakening of grain boundaries and
promotes corrosion of Al-Mg alloys.


2) Micro-structural constituents.

A heterogeneous microstructure forms anodic and
cathodic sites which promotes corrosion. Intermetallic
precipitate serves as anodic and cathodic sites and they
may be anodic or cathodic to the matrix.

Examples:

CuA12 precipitate is cathodic to the aluminum matrix
and Mg
2
Si is anodic to the matrix.
Al 6013-SiC composite corrodes at the Al matrix / SiC
interface because of the preponderance of
intermetallic secondary phases.
A non-homogeneous distribution of SiC contributes to
accelerated corrosion.



3) Surface treatment, such as galvanizing,
phosphating and painting increase the resistance of
materials to corrosion.

Examples:

Galvanizing improves the resistance of steels to
corrosion and is widely used in automobile industry.
Galvanized pipes are widely used for transport of hot
water in domestic plumbing systems.
If the temperature, however, exceeds 650C, reversal
of polarity (steel becomes anodic) can cause
corrosion of the galvanized pipes.

4) Alloying elements and film formation.
Examples:
Alloying elements in steels, e.g. Cr, Ni or Mo
contribute to the production of a protective oxide layer
which makes steel passive.
Addition of Cu to Al alloy increases the strength but
decreases the corrosion resistance.
Scandium addition to Al-Mg-Si alloys significantly
increases their strength without effecting a decrease
in their corrosion resistance.
Coatings of epoxy and polyurethanes provide a
longer life to structures exposed to corrosive
environments.

FABRICATION PARAMETERS

Following are the fabrication parameters required for
analyzing material selection:

1) Weldability.
Welding procedures, such as electric arc welding
friction welding, spot welding, need to be carefully
selected to minimize the effect of corrosion.
For instance, gas welding in the sensitive
temperature
range may cause intergranular cracking.

2) Machinability.
Machining operations, such as drilling, milling,
shearing, turning, may lead to enhancement of
corrosion if they are not properly controlled.
Drilling fluids are highly corrosive and need to be
handled with care.


3) Surface modification procedures (e.g. cladding i.e.
covering, galvanizing and metallizing applying metallic
coatings):

They increase the resistance of the materials to
corrosion.

The success of the coating depends on the bonding
between the coating and the substrate and surface
preparation before the application of coatings according
to the international standards.

Surface preparation techniques include hand, power tool
cleaning and abrasive blast cleaning.



STRATEGY OF MATERIALS SELECTION

The following steps lead to the screening and ranking of
candidate materials:

a) The material attributes must meet the required design
requirements.
For example, if the service temperature for a commercial
steel component in an oxidizing environment is
prescribed at 1100C, 25 Cr-20 Ni steel would be a
suitable choice.
Other steels, such as 13 Cr Steel, 18 Cr steel would be
screened out because their limiting service temperature
are below 7500C.

b) Find candidate materials which can do the job. How
good a job can be done by other materials can be known
by determining their material indices.

A combination of mechanical properties which
characterize the performance of material gives
maximized or minimized material attributes.

c) Supporting information: Screening helps to
short list the candidate materials and considerably
narrows down the range of selection.
To further narrow the choice of candidates,
support information is explored comprising:

1) Handbooks, such as ASM Handbook, CRC Handbook
of Materials, etc.
2) Data sheets from suppliers.
3) Data sheet from professional organizations, such as
Nickel Development Association (NDA); Copper
Development Association (CDA); American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI), etc.
4) Websites of suppliers.
5) Personal contacts.

d) Local environment: The suitability of a product or
equipment in a local environment is essential to service
life.

e) The final material choice will evolve the completion of
a systematic screening process.

MATERIALS AND FLUID CORROSIVITY

Corrosion resistance of materials depends on the nature
of the corrosive environment.

A material may be very corrosion-resistant in an
environment and yet fail in another environment.

A knowledge of corrosion resistance of a material in a
given environment is, therefore, of a fundamental
importance to their successful application. A
knowledge of the corrosivity of the environment, is
therefore, very useful for selection of materials.

Water plays a predominant role in a corrosion
reaction since it is an electrolyte, an essential
component of a corrosion cell.

Pure water is a poor conductor arid not significantly
corrosive up to 170C.

In the presence of salts, acids and dissolved
gases, like hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide
(CO
2
) and oxygen (O
2
), the degree of corrosivity
of water is significantly increased.

The following are the common aggressive
environments encountered by materials:

1) Industrial environment
2) Marine environment.
3) Oilfield environment.
4) Pollution environment.


INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT

The industries contributing to the industrial environment
include chemical, petrochemical, fertilizer, pulp and paper,
and all other process industries.

The following are the major corrosive fluids encountered in
a wide spectrum of industry:

a) Acids (inorganic & organic, i.e. mineral & carboxylic).
b) Strong alkalies (bases).
c) Salt water.
d) Dissolved gases, e.g H
2
S, CO
2
, and oxygen.

e) Pollutants, e.g. particulate matter, sulfur oxides, CO,
NO
x
, ozone and lead.

f) Soil pollution, e.g. bacteria, oil spills, natural gas
contaminants, sewage contaminants and pesticide
degradation products.

The success of service performance of materials
would depend on their ability to offer sufficient
resistance to corrosion in industrial
environments.

RANKING OF PERFORMANCE OF MATEREALS

The ranking of materials is based on the basis of the degree of
corrosion resistance they offer in a given environment.
The best way to evaluate corrosion resistance is to determine their
rate of corrosion according to the standards of:
ASTM (American Society for Testing of Materials)
NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers)
COST EFFECTIVENESS IN MATERIAL SELECTION

A. Design life
This is based on a specified amount of time required to
recover investment and operating costs, plus a
reasonable profit margin.

B. Quality level
A quality level assigned to an item of fabricated
equipment indicates the required level of testing and
inspection.
Quality can be defined as fitness for the purpose.

C. Corrosion allowance
Corrosion allowance is related to the corrosion rate and
the designed life of the equipment.

Carbon steel is cost-effective because it remains
economical even after the adding cost of extra wall
thickness required to maintain corrosion allowance.

D. National codes
National codes and standards can be used as guidelines
for selection of material and fabrication of equipment.

E. Economic consideration
Initial cost, operating costs and maintenance costs must
be given full consideration in the process of materials
selection.

F. Availability
This is an important consideration. An alternate material
must also be specified in case the recommended
material is not available.