can be compressed

exert pressure on whatever surrounds

them
expand into whatever volume is available
easily diffuse into one another
can be described in terms of their
temperatures and pressure, the volume
occupied, and the amount (number of
molecules or moles) present

pressure = force/area
force = mass acceleration
1 Standard Atmosphere = 1 atm
1 atm = 760 mm Hg (exactly)
760 mm Hg (exactly) = 760 torr(The torr (symbol:
Torr) is a non-SI unit of pressure defined as
1

760
of
a standard atmosphere, chosen to be roughly equal
to the fluid pressure exerted by a millimeter of
mercury, i.e. a pressure of 1 Torr is approximately
equal to 1 mmHg
760 torr = 101.325 kPa
100 kPa = 1 bar
Pressure is defined as a FORCE acting over
an AREA
Each time a gas particle collides with its
container, it exerts a tiny force over a tiny
area
The sum of all these forces, over the area
of the container walls, produces a
measurable pressure within the container

1. Gases are composed of large numbers of
particles in constant, random motion.
2. Gas particles are separated by relatively large
distances (~10 particle diameters).
3. Gas particles collide elastically with each other
and with the walls of their container there is no
loss of energy in the collisions.
4. Gas particles are assumed to be points in space
their volumes are negligible.
5. Gas particles experience no intermolecular
forces
When studying gases, there are four common
variables:
Volume, V
Pressure, P
Temperature, T
Amount, # of moles, n
Three common laws were developed to see
the effects of Pressure, Temperature and
Moles on the Volume of a gas
A fourth law describes the effect of
temperature on pressure of a gas.
The relationship between the pressure and the
volume of a given sample of gas at fixed
temperature.
A sample of gas compresses if the external
pressure applied to it increases and the product PV
is constant.
The Pressure (P) of a gas is inversely proportional
to Volume (V) at constant Temperature (T) and
moles of gas (n).

Boyle's law, stated in mathematical terms for a gas
whose pressure and volume is measured at two
different pressure/volume states at a constant
temperature is then,
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2


Let, T
1
& T
2
= initial and final temperature of gas respectively in K.
V
1
& V
2
= initial & final volumes of gas respectively in m
3
.
C
p
& C
v
= specific heat of gas at constant pressure and constant
volume respectively KJ/kg K
R= characteristic gas constant in KJ/kg k.
P= pressure of gas in kpa or kN/m
2
.
M= mass of gas = 1 kg.
Consider unit mass of gas heated at constant volume from temperature
T
1
to T
2
.
Heat supplied at constant volume= Q
v
= mC
v
(T
2
- T
1
), but m=1 kg
Therefore Q
v
= C
v
(T
2
- T
1
).
When heat is supplied at constant volume no external work is done. All
heat energy is utilized for changing the internal energy and thus we
get
Change in internal energy, u= C
v
(T
2
- T
1
)-------------(1)

Now, consider a unit mass of gas heated at constant pressure.

Heat supplied: Q
p
= m C
p
(T
2
- T
1
) But m=1kg

Therefore, we get Q
p
= C
p
(T
2
- T
1
)

When a gas is heated at constant pressure, heat supplied is utilized for two purpose.

(1) Increase in internal energy (2) overcoming external resistance

Therefore, increase in internal energy= C
v
(T
2
- T
1
)-----------(2)

Work done or Energy spent in overcoming external resistance= p(V
2
- V
1
) -------------(3)
So equation 2 + equation 3 = Q
p.

Therefore , Q
p
= C
v
(T
2
- T
1
) + p(V
2
- V
1
)

C
p
(T
2
- T
1
) = C
v
(T
2
- T
1
) + p(V
2
- V
1
) [ but pv= RT]

C
p
(T
2
- T
1
) = C
v
(T
2
- T
1
) + R(T
2
- T
1
)

C
p
= C
v
+ R thus C
p
- C
v
= R this equation is called mayers equation

C
p
- C
v
= R -----(a)
Dividing both the sides of equation by C
v,
we
get
(C
p
/ C
v
) -1 = (R/ C
v
)
If we denote C
p
/ C
v
= , then we get
-1 = (R/ C
v
) also C
p
= C
v

C
p
= R /( -1)
The ratio C
p
/ C
v
= is known as adiabatic index

Enthalpy of a substance at any point is quantification of energy content in it,
which could be given by summation of internal energy and flow work.
H= u + pV
Flow Process:
Work interaction taking place in a system can be classified as flow work or
non flow work based on the nature of process
Flow process :
Flow process is one in which fluid enters the system and leaves it after work
interaction, which means that such processes occur in the system having
open boundary permitting mass intraction across the system boundary.
Non flow process:
Non flow process is the one in which there is no mass interaction across the
system boundaries during the occurrence of the process.
Different types of non flow process of perfect gases are : (a) constant volume
process (b) constant pressure process (c) isothermal process (d) adiabatic
process.

In constant volume process the working substance is contained
in a rigid vessel, hence boundaries of a system are immovable
and no work can be done on or by the system. This process is
also known as Isochoric process.
Work done during process.
Work done = pdv
Total work done =
v1

v2
pdv
Constant volume process, change in volume dV=0.
Work done = 0.
Relation Between p, V and T:
P
1
V
1
/ T
1
= p
2
V
2
/T
2

But V
1
= V
2
= constant
Therefore P
1
/ T
1
= p
2
/T
2


Change in internal energy:
dU= mC
v
(T
2
T
1
)
Heat transferred :
According to first law of thermodynamics
Q= W + dU
for constant volume process dV=0, therefore W=0
Q = dU= mC
v
(T
2
- T
1
)
Change in enthalpy:
H = U + pV
For state 1 & 2:
H
1
= U
1
+ p
1
V
1

H
2
= U
2
+ p
2
V
2

Change in enthalpy,
H= H
2
- H
1

= (U
2
- U
1
) + (p
2
V
2
- p
1
V
1
)
= mC
v
(T
2
- T
1
) + mR(T
2
- T
1
) [ PV = mRT]
But R= C
p
- C
v

H = mC
v
(T
2
- T
1
) + m(C
p
- C
v
) (T
2
- T
1
)
H = m C
p
(T
2
- T
1
)
During this process the pressure of a gas
remains constant.
Work done during the process:
Work done = pdv
Total work done =
v1

v2
pdv but p is constant
Work done, w= p
v1

v2
dv = p(V
2
V
1
)
Relation between P,V & T:
P
1
V
1
/ T
1
= p
2
V
2
/T
2
but (p
1
= p
2
)
V
1
/ T
1
= V
2
/T
2
( charles law)

Change in internal energy:
dU= mC
v
(T
2
T
1
) [ internal energy is a function of temperature alone]
Heat transfer:
According to first law of thermodynamics
Q= W + dU
= p(V
2
V
1
) + mC
v
(T
2
T
1
)
= mR(T
2
- T
1
) + mC
v
(T
2
T
1
) [ PV = mRT]
But R= C
p
- C
v


= m(C
p
- C
v
) (T
2
T
1
) + mC
v
(T
2
T
1
)
Q = mC
p
(T
2
- T
1
)
change in enthalpy
H = m C
p
(T
2
- T
1
) as early.

In isothermal process temperature remains
constant during the process . This process
follows Boyles law.
Other name of this process is constant
internal energy process.