Chapter 4 :

Flow Through pipes and

Immersed Bodies
Pipe System
A pipe system include the pipes themselves
(perhaps of more than one diameter), the various
fittings, the flowrate control devices valves) , and
the pumps or turbines.
Pipe Flow vs. Open Channel Flow
Pipe flow: Flows completely filling the pipe. (a)
The pressure gradient along the pipe is main driving force.
Open channel flow: Flows without completely filling the
pipe. (b)
The gravity alone is the driving force.
Indication of
Laminar or Turbulent Flow
The term flowrate should be replaced by Reynolds
number, ,where V is the average velocity in
the pipe.
It is not only the fluid velocity that determines the
character of the flow its density, viscosity, and the pipe
size are of equal importance.
For general engineering purpose, the flow in a round pipe
Laminar
Transitional
Turbulent
= / VD R
e
2100 R
e
<
4000 R
e
Entrance Region and
Fully Developed Flow
1/2
Any fluid flowing in a pipe had to enter the pipe at some
location.
The region of flow near where the fluid enters the pipe is
termed the entrance region.
Entrance Region and
Fully Developed Flow
2/2
The shape of the velocity profile in the pipe depends on
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, as does the length
of the entrance region,
e
.
e
e
R 06 . 0
D
=

6 / 1
e
e
R 4 . 4
D
=

For laminar flow For turbulent flow

Dimensionless entrance length
Pressure Distribution along Pipe

In the entrance region of a pipe, the fluid
accelerates or decelerates as it flows. There is
a balance between pressure, viscous, and
inertia (acceleration) force.
The magnitude of the
pressure gradient is
constant.
The magnitude of the
pressure gradient is larger
than that in the fully
developed region.
0
p
x
p
<
A
=
c
c

Fully Developed Laminar Flow

1/3
The shear stress distribution


Volume flowrate

A t
=
t
= = t = =
} }
128
p D
Q
2
V R
..... rdr 2 ) r ( u A d u Q
4
C
4
R
0
A
Poiseuilles Law
Valid for Laminar flow only
D
4
p
w
t
= A


Fully Developed Laminar Flow
2/3
Average velocity



Point of maximum velocity

A
=
t
= =
32
pD
R
Q
A
Q
V
2
2
average
0
dr
du
=
at r =0
average
2
max
V 2
4
p R
U u u =

A
= = =

Fully Developed Laminar Flow

3/3
Making adjustment to account for nonhorizontal pipes


u A A sin p p u>0 if the flow is uphill
u<0 if the flow is downhill
r
2 sin p t
=
u A

( )

u A
=
32
D sin p
V
2
average
( )

u A t
=
128
D sin p
Q
4

Example 4.1 Laminar Pipe Flow
An oil with a viscosity of = 0.40 N s/m
2
and density = 900 kg/m
3

flows in a pipe of diameter D= 0.20m . (a) What pressure drop, p
1
-p
2
,
is needed to produce a flowrate of Q=2.010
-5
m
3
/s if the pipe is
horizontal with x
1
=0 and x
2
=10 m? (b) How steep a hill, ,must the
pipe be on if the oil is to flow through the pipe at the same rate as in
part (a), but with p
1
=p
2
? (c) For the conditions of part (b), if p
1
=200
kPa, what is the pressure at section, x
3
=5 m, where x is measured
along the pipe?
Example 4.1 Solution
1/2
2100 87 . 2 / VD R
e
< = =
s / m 0637 . 0
A
Q
V = =
The flow is laminar flow
kPa 4 . 20 ...
D
Q 128
p p p
4
2 1
= =
t

= = A

= u =
t

= u 34 . 13 ...
gD
Q 128
sin
4

If the pipe is on the hill of angle with p=0

( )

u A t
=
128
D sin p
Q
4

Example 4.1 Solution
2/2
With p
1
=p
2
the length of the pipe, , does not appear in the flowrate
equation
kPa 200 p p p
3 2 1
= = =
p=0 for all

Fully Developed Turbulent Flow

Turbulent pipe flow is actually more likely to occur than
laminar flow in practical situations.
Turbulent flow is a very complex process.
Numerous persons have devoted considerable effort in an
attempting to understand the variety of baffling aspects of
turbulence. Although a considerable amount if knowledge
about the topics has been developed, the field of turbulent
flow still remains the least understood area of fluid
mechanics.
Much remains to be learned about the nature of turbulent flow.
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent
Flow in a Pipe
1/2
For any flow geometry, there is one (or more)
dimensionless parameters such as with this parameter
value below a particular value the flow is laminar, whereas
with the parameter value larger than a certain value the
flow is turbulent.
The important parameters involved and their critical
values depend on the specific flow situation involved.
Consider a long section of pipe that is
initially filled with a fluid at rest.
For flow in pipe : 2100<Re..Re>4000
For flow along a plate Re
x
~5000

Transition from Laminar to Turbulent
Flow in a Pipe
2/2
As the valve is opened to start the flow, the flow velocity and, hence,
the Reynolds number increase from zero (no flow) to their
maximum steady flow values.
For the initial time period the Reynolds number is small enough for
laminar flow to occur.
At some time the Reynolds
number reaches 2100, and the
flow begins its transition to
turbulent conditions.
Intermittent spots or burst
appear..
Energy Considerations
1/4
For steady, incompressible, frictional flow
0 q u u
in net in out
>
loss gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
in
2
in in
out
2
out out
+ +

= + +

Defining useful or available energy

gz
2
V p
2
+ +

Defining loss of useful or available energy

Frictional flow

Energy Considerations
2/4
( )
in net shaft in net in out
2
in
2
out in out
in out
W Q z z g
2
V V p p
u u m

+ =
(

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
m

) q u u ( w gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
in net in out in net shaft in
2
in in
out
2
out out
+ + +

= + +

For steady, incompressible flow with friction and shaft work

loss w gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
in net shaft in
2
in in
out
2
out out
+ + +

= + +

g
L s in
2
in in
out
2
out out
h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
+ + +

= + +

Q
W
g m
W
g
w
h
in net shaft in net shaft in net shaft
S

= =

g
loss
h
L
= Head loss Shaft head



Energy Considerations
4/4
Total head loss , h
L
, is regarded as the sum of major losses,
h
L major
, due to frictional effects in fully developed flow
in constant area tubes, and minor losses, h
L minor
, resulting
from entrance, fitting, area changes, and so on.
or min major
L L L
h h h + =
Major Losses: Friction Factor
The energy equation for steady and incompressible flow
with zero shaft work


L 2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h gz
2
V p
gz
2
V p
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
o
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
o
+

L 1 2
2 1
h ) z z ( g
p p
+ =

>>>
For fully developed flow through a constant area pipe ,
o
1
= o
2
=1 , V
1
= V
2
(o : Kinetic energy coefficient)

For horizontal pipe, z
2
=z
1
L
2 1
h
p p p
=

A
=

>>>
Major Losses: Laminar Flow
In fully developed laminar flow in a horizontal pipe, the
pressure drop
( )
2
V
D R
64
VD
64
2
V
D D
V
D
32 h
2
V
D
f p
D Re
64
D VD
64
V
2
1
p
D
V
D
32
D
4 / D V 128
D
Q 128
p
2
e
2
L
2
2
4
2
4



|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

= >>

= A
=

=
t
t
=
t

= A
Re
64
f
ar min la
=
Friction Factor ( ) ( ) 2 / V / / D p f
2
A =

Major Losses: Turbulent Flow
1/3
In turbulent flow we cannot evaluate the pressure drop analytically;
we must resort to experimental results and use dimensional analysis
to correlate the experimental data.
( ) c = A , , , , D , V F p
In fully developed turbulent flow the
pressure drop, p , caused by friction
in a horizontal constant-area pipe is
known to depend on pipe diameter,D,
pipe length, , pipe roughness,e,
average flow velocity, V, fluid density,
and fluid viscosity,.
Major Losses: Turbulent Flow
2/3
Applying dimensional analysis, the result were a correlation of the
form


Experiments show that the nondimensional head loss is directly
proportional to /D. Hence we can write
|
.
|

\
|
c
| =

A
D
Re,
D V
p
2
2
1

|
.
|

\
|
c
|
D
Re, f
g 2
V
D
f h
2
L
major

2
V
D
f p
2

= A

Darcy-Weisbach equation
|
|
.
|

\
| c

| =

A
D
,
D
,
VD
V
p
2
2
1

Roughness for Pipes
Friction Factor by L. F. Moody
Depending on the specific
circumstances involved.
About Moody Chart

For laminar flow, f=64/Re, which is independent of the
relative roughness.
For very large Reynolds numbers, f=(/D), which is
independent of the Reynolds numbers.
For flows with very large value of Re, commonly termed
completely turbulent flow (or wholly turbulent flow), the
laminar sublayer is so thin (its thickness decrease with
increasing Re) that the surface roughness completely
dominates the character of the flow near the wall.
For flows with moderate value of Re, the friction factor
f=(Re,/D).
Major Losses: Turbulent Flow
3/3
Colebrook To avoid having to use a graphical method for
obtaining f for turbulent flows.



Miler suggests that a single iteration will produce a result within
1 percent if the initial estimate is calculated from
(

+
c
=
f Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
D /
log 0 . 2
f
1
2
9 . 0
0
Re
74 . 5
7 . 3
D /
log 25 . 0 f

(

+
c
=
Valid for the entire nonlaminar
range of the Moody chart.
Colebrook formula
Example 4.2 Comparison of Laminar or
Turbulent pressure Drop
Air under standard conditions flows through a 4.0-mm-diameter
drawn tubing with an average velocity of V = 50 m/s. For such
conditions the flow would normally be turbulent. However, if
precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to the flow (the
entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust free, the tube does
not vibrate, etc.), it may be possible to maintain laminar flow. (a)
Determine the pressure drop in a 0.1-m section of the tube if the
flow is laminar. (b) Repeat the calculations if the flow is turbulent.
Example 4.2 Solution
1/2
flow Turbulent 700 , 13 ... / VD R
e
= = =
Under standard temperature and pressure conditions
V=1.23kg/m
3
, =1.7910
-5
Ns/m
The Reynolds number
kPa 179 . 0 ... V
2
1
D
f p
2
= = = A

If the flow were laminar
f=64/Re=`=0.0467

Example 4.2 Solution
2/2
kPa 076 . 1 ... V
2
1
D
f p
2
= = = A

If the flow were turbulent
From Moody chart f=(Re,/D) =0.028
Minor Losses
1/5
Most pipe systems consist of
considerably more than straight
pipes. These additional
components (valves, bends, tees,
and the like) add to the overall
head loss of the system.
Such losses are termed MINOR
LOSS.
The flow pattern through a valve
Minor Losses
2/5
The theoretical analysis to predict the details of flow
pattern (through these additional components) is not, as
yet, possible.
The head loss information for essentially all components is
given in dimensionless form and based on experimental
data. The most common method used to determine these
head losses or pressure drops is to specify the loss
coefficient, K
L
Minor Losses
3/5
2
L
2
2
L
L
V
2
1
K p
V
2
1
p
g 2 / V
h
K
or min
= A

A
= =
Re) , geometry ( K
L
| =
f
D
K
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
K h
L eq
2
eq
2
L L
or min
=
= =

Minor losses are sometimes

given in terms of an equivalent
length
eq
The actual value of K
L
is strongly dependent on the geometry of
the component considered. It may also dependent on the fluid
properties. That is

Minor Losses
4/5
For many practical applications the Reynolds number is
large enough so that the flow through the component is
dominated by inertial effects, with viscous effects being of
secondary importance.
In a flow that is dominated by inertia effects rather than
viscous effects, it is usually found that pressure drops and
head losses correlate directly with the dynamic pressure.
This is the reason why the friction factor for very large
Reynolds number, fully developed pipe flow is
independent of the Reynolds number.

Minor Losses
5/5
This is true for flow through pipe components.
Thus, in most cases of practical interest the loss
coefficients for components are a function of geometry
only,

) geometry ( K
L
| =
Minor Losses Coefficient
Entrance flow 1/3
Entrance flow condition
and loss coefficient

(a) Reentrant, K
L
= 0.8
(b) sharp-edged, K
L
= 0.5
(c) slightly rounded, K
L
= 0.2
(d) well-rounded, K
L
= 0.04
K
L
= function of rounding of
the inlet edge.
Minor Losses Coefficient
Entrance flow 2/3
A vena contracta region may result because the fluid
cannot turn a sharp right-angle corner. The flow is said to
separate from the sharp corner.
The maximum velocity velocity at section (2) is greater
than that in the pipe section (3), and the pressure there is
lower.
If this high speed fluid could slow down efficiently, the
kinetic energy could be converted into pressure.

Minor Losses Coefficient
Entrance flow 3/3
Such is not the case. Although
the fluid may be accelerated very
efficiently, it is very difficult to
slow down (decelerate) the fluid
efficiently.
(2)(3) The extra kinetic energy
of the fluid is partially lost
because of viscous dissipation,
so that the pressure does not
return to the ideal value.

Flow pattern and pressure distribution
for a sharp-edged entrance
Minor Losses Coefficient
Exit flow
Exit flow condition and
loss coefficient

(a) Reentrant, KL = 1.0
(b) sharp-edged, KL = 1.0
(c) slightly rounded, KL = 1.0
(d) well-rounded, KL = 1.0
Minor Losses Coefficient
varied diameter
Loss coefficient for sudden
contraction, expansion,typical
conical diffuser.

2
2
1
L
A
A
1 K
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Minor Losses Coefficient
Bend
Carefully designed guide vanes
help direct the flow with less
unwanted swirl and disturbances.
Character of the flow in bend
and the associated loss
coefficient.
Internal Structure of Valves
(a) globe valve
(b) gate valve
(c) swing check valve
(d) stop check valve
Loss
Coefficients
for Pipe
Components
Example 4.3 Minor Loss
1/2
Air at standard conditions is to flow through the test section
[between sections (5) and (6)] of the closed-circuit wind tunnel
shown if Figure E8.6 with a velocity of 200 ft/s. The flow is driven
by a fan that essentially increase the static pressure by the amount
p
1
-p
9
that is needed to overcome the head losses experienced by the
fluid as it flows around the circuit. Estimate the value of p
1
-p
9
and
the horsepower supplied to the fluid by the fan.
Example 4.3 Minor Loss
2/2
Example 4.3 Solution
1/3
The maximum velocity within the wind tunnel occurs in the
test section (smallest area). Thus, the maximum Mach number
of the flow is Ma
5
=V
5
/c
5
9 1 L 9
2
9 9
1
2
1 1
h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p

+ + +

= + +

s / ft 1117 ) KRT ( c s / ft 200 V

2 / 1
5 5 5
= = =
The energy equation between points (1) and (9)

9 1
9 1 L
p p
h
The total head loss from (1) to (9).

Example 4.3 Solution
2/3
The energy across the fan, from (9) to (1)

9 1 L 5 5 p 5 5 p a
h V A h V A Qh P

= = =
9 1 L
9 1
p
h
p p
h

=

=
1
2
1 1
p 9
2
9 9
z
g 2
V p
h z
g 2
V p
+ +

= + + +

H
p
is the actual head rise supplied
by the pump (fan) to the air.
The actual power supplied to the air
(horsepower, P
a
) is obtained from the
fan head by


Example 4.3 Solution
3/3
The total head loss

hp 3 . 62 s / lb ft 34300 ... P
psi 298 . 0 ... ) ft 560 )( ft / lb 765 . 0 ( h p p
a
2
9 1 L 9 1
= = =
= = = =

scr noz dif 3 corner 2 corner 8 corner 7 corner
L L L L L L L 9 1 L
h h h h h h h h + + + + + + =

0 . 4 K 2 . 0 K
g 2
V
6 . 0
g 2
V
K h
g 2
V
2 . 0
g 2
V
K h
scr noz
dif dif corner
L L
2 2
L L
2 2
L L
= =
= = = =

Noncircular Ducts
1/4
The empirical correlations for pipe flow may be used for
computations involving noncircular ducts, provided their
cross sections are not too exaggerated.
The correlation for turbulent pipe flow are extended for
use with noncircular geometries by introducing the
hydraulic diameter, defined as
P
A 4
D
h

Where A is cross-
sectional area, and P
is wetted perimeter.
Noncircular Ducts
2/4
For a circular duct


For a rectangular duct of width b and height h



The hydraulic diameter concept can be applied in the
approximate range <ar<4. So the correlations for pipe
flow give acceptably accurate results for rectangular ducts.
b h a
a
h
h b
bh
P
A
D
r
r
h
/
1
2
) ( 2
4 4
=
+
=
+
=
D
P
A 4
D
h
=
Noncircular Ducts
3/4
The friction factor can be written as f=C/Re
h
, where the
constant C depends on the particular shape of the duct, and
Re
h
is the Reynolds number based on the hydraulic
diameter.
The hydraulic diameter is also used in the definition of the
friction factor, , and the relative
roughness c/D
h
.
) g 2 / V )( D / ( f h
2
h L
=
Noncircular Ducts
4/4
For Laminar flow, the value of C=f Re
h
have been
obtained from theory and/or experiment for various shapes.
For turbulent flow in ducts of noncircular cross section,
calculations are carried out by using the Moody chart data
for round pipes with the diameter replaced by the hydraulic
diameter and the Reynolds number based on the hydraulic
diameter.
The Moody chart, developed for round pipes, can also
be used for noncircular ducts.
Friction Factor for Laminar Flow in
Noncircular Ducts

Example 4.4 Noncircular Duct

Air at temperature of 120F and standard pressure flows from a
furnace through an 8-in.-diameter pipe with an average velocity of
10ft/s. It then passes through a transition section and into a square
duct whose side is of length a. The pipe and duct surfaces are
smooth (=0). Determine the duct size, a, if the head loss per foot is
to be the same for the pipe and the duct.
Example 4.4 Solution
1/3
The head loss per foot for the pipe
2
s h
a
49 . 3
A
Q
V a
P
A 4
D = = = =
For given pressure and temperature =1.8910
-4
ft
2
/s

g 2
V
D
f h
2
L
=

35300
VD
Re =
v
=
0512 . 0
g 2
V
D
f h
2
s
h
L
= =

For the square duct

Example 4.4 Solution
2/3
Have three unknown (a,f, and Re
h
) and three equation
Eqs. 1, 2, and either in graphical form the Moody chart or
the Colebrook equation
The Reynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter

a
10 89 . 1
10 89 . 1
a ) a / 49 . 3 ( D V
Re
4
4
2
h s
h

=
v
=
5 / 1
2 2 2
s
h
L
f 30 . 1 a
) 2 . 32 ( 2
) a / 49 . 3 (
a
f
0512 . 0
g 2
V
D
f h
= = = =

(1)
(2)

Find a

Example 4.4 Solution
3/3
Use the Moody chart
Assume the friction factor for the duct is the same as for the pipe.
That is, assume f=0.022.
From Eq. 1 we obtain a=0.606 ft.
From Eq. 2 we have Re
h
=3.0510
4
From Moody chart we find f=0.023, which does not quite agree the
assumed value of f.
Try again, using the latest calculated value of f=0.023 as our guess.
The final result is f=0.023, Re
h
=3.0510
4
, and a=0.611ft.

Pipe Flow Examples
1/2
The energy equation, relating the conditions at any two
points 1 and 2 for a single-path pipe system


by judicious choice of points 1 and 2 we can analyze not
only the entire pipe system, but also just a certain section
of it that we may be interested in.

g 2
V
D
f h
2
L
major

+ = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
o
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
o
+

or min major L L L 2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h h h z
g 2
V
g
p
z
g 2
V
g
p
Major loss
Minor loss
g 2
V
K h
2
L L
or min
=
Pipe Flow Examples
2/2
Single pipe whose length may be interrupted by various
components.
Multiple pipes in different configuration
Parallel
Series
Network
Single-Path Systems
1/2
Pipe flow problems can be categorized by what parameters
are given and what is to be calculated.
Single-Path Systems
2/2
Given pipe (L and D), and flow rate, and Q, find pressure
drop p
Given p, D, and Q, find L.
Given p, L, and D, find Q.
Given p, L, and Q, find D.
Given L , D, and Q, find p
The energy equation



The flow rate leads to the Reynolds number and hence the
friction factor for the flow.
Tabulated data can be used for minor loss coefficients and
equivalent lengths.
The energy equation can then be used to directly to obtain
the pressure drop.

+ = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
o
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
o
+

or min major L L L 2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h h h z
g 2
V
g
p
z
g 2
V
g
p
Given p, D, and Q, find L
The energy equation



The flow rate leads to the Reynolds number and hence the
friction factor for the flow.
Tabulated data can be used for minor loss coefficients and
equivalent lengths.
The energy equation can then be rearranged and solved
directly for the pipe length.

+ = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
o
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
o
+

or min major L L L 2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h h h z
g 2
V
g
p
z
g 2
V
g
p
Given p, L, and D, find Q
1/2
These types of problems required either manual iteration
or use of a computer application.
The unknown flow rate or velocity is needed before the
Reynolds number and hence the friction factor can be
found.
Repeat the iteration process
f V Re f until convergence
Given p, L, and D, find Q
2/2
First, we make a guess for f and solve the energy equation
for V in terms of known quantities and the guessed
friction factor f.
Then we can compute a Reynolds number and hence
obtain a new value for f.
Repeat the iteration process
f V Re f until convergence
Given p, L, and Q, find D
1/2
These types of problems required either manual iteration
or use of a computer application.
The unknown diameter is needed before the Reynolds
number and relative roughness, and hence the friction
factor can be found.


Given p, L, and Q, find D
2/2
First, we make a guess for f and solve the energy equation
for D in terms of known quantities and the guessed
friction factor f.
Then we can compute a Reynolds number and hence
obtain a new value for f.
Repeat the iteration process
f D Re and /D f until convergence
Example 4.5 Type I Determine Pressure
Drop

Water at 60F flows from the basement to the second floor through the
0.75-in. (0.0625-fy)-diameter copper pipe (a drawn tubing) at a rate of
Q = 12.0 gal/min = 0.0267 ft
3
/s and exits through a faucet of diameter
0.50 in. as shown in Figure.
Determine the pressure at
point (1) if: (a) all losses
are neglected, (b) the only
losses included are major
losses, or (c) all losses are
included.
Example 4.5 Solution
1/4
The energy equation
45000 / VD Re ft / s lb 10 34 . 2
ft / slug 94 . 1 s / ft 70 . 8 ...
A
Q
V
2 5
3
1
1
= = =
= = = =

s / ft 6 . 19 ... A / Q V
) jet free ( 0 p , ft 20 z , 0 z
2 2
2 2 1
= = =
= = =
L 2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
h z
g 2
V
g
p
z
g 2
V
g
p
+ +
o
+

= +
o
+

The flow is turbulent

L
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
h ) V V ( z p + + =
Head loss is different for
each of the three cases.

Example 4.5 Solution
2/4
(a) If all losses are neglected (h
L
=0)
45000 Re 10 8 D / 000005 . 0
5
= = c = c

psi 7 . 10 ft / lb 1547 ... ) V V ( z p
2
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
= = = + =
f = 0.0215
(b) If the only losses included are the major losses, the head loss is
g 2
V
D
f h
2
1
L

=
Moody chart
psi 3 . 21 ft / lb 3062 ...
2
V
D
) ft 60 (
f ) V V ( z p
2
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
= = =
=
+ + =


Example 4.5 Solution
3/4
(c) If major and minor losses are included
] 2 ) 5 . 1 ( 4 10 [
2
) s / ft 70 . 8 (
) ft / slugs 94 . 1 ( psi 3 . 21
2
V
K psi 3 . 21 p
2
V
K
g 2
V
D
f ) V V ( z p
2
3
2
L 1
2
L
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
+ + + =
+ =
+ + + =

psi 5 . 30 psi 17 . 9 psi 3 . 21 p

1
= + =
Example 4.5 Solution
4/4
Example 4.6 Type I, Determine Head Loss

Crude oil at 140F with =53.7 lb/ft
3
and = 810-5 lb s/ft
2
(about
four times the viscosity of water) is pumped across Alaska through
the Alaska pipeline, a 799-mile-along, 4-ft-diameter steel pipe, at a
maximum rate of Q = 2.4 million barrel/day = 117ft
3
/s, or
V=Q/A=9.31 ft/s. Determine the horsepower needed for the pumps
that drive this large system.
Example 4.6 Solution
1/2
The energy equation between points (1) and (2)
Assume that z
1
=z
2
, p
1
=p
2
=V
1
=V
2
=0 (large, open tank)
ft 17700 ...
g 2
V
D
f h h
2
P L
= = = =

L 2
2
2 2
P 1
2
1 1
h z
g 2
V p
h z
g 2
V p
+ + +

= + + +

h
P
is the head provided to the oil
by the pump.
Minor losses are negligible because of the large length-to-
diameter ratio of the relatively straight, uninterrupted pipe.
f=0.0124 from Moody chart /D=(0.00015ft)/(4ft), Re=..

Example 4.6 Solution
2/2
The actual power supplied to the fluid.
hp 202000
s / lb ft 550
hp 1
... Qh P
P a
=
|
.
|

\
|

= =
Example 4.7 Type II, Determine Flowrate

According to an appliance manufacturer, the 4-in-diameter
galvanized iron vent on a clothes dryer is not to contain more than
20 ft of pipe and four 90 elbows. Under these conditions determine
the air flowrate if the pressure within the dryer is 0.20 inches of
water. Assume a temperature of 100 and standard pressure.
Example 4.7 Solution
1/2
Application of the energy equation between the inside of the dryer,
point (1), and the exit of the vent pipe, point (2) gives

+ + + +

= + +
g 2
V
K
g 2
V
D
f z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
2
L
2
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1

Assume that z
1
=z
2
, p
2
=0, V
1
=0
2 3
1
O H
1
ft / lb 04 . 1 ) ft / lb 4 . 62 (
. in 12
ft 1
.) in 2 . 0 ( p in 2 . 0
p
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =

With =0.0709lb/ft
3
, V
2
=V, and =1.7910
-4
ft
2
/s.
2
V ) f 60 5 . 7 ( 945 + =
(1)
f is dependent on Re, which is dependent on V, and unknown.
Example 4.7 Solution
2/2
V 1860 ...
VD
Re = =
v
=
(2)
We have three relationships (Eq. 1, 2, and the /D=0.0015 curve of
the Moody chart) from which we can solve for the three unknowns f,
Re, and V.
This is done easily by iterative scheme as follows.
Assume f=0.022V=10.4ft/s (Eq. 1)Re=19,300 (Eq.2)f=0.029
Assume f=0.029 V10.1ft/sRe=18,800 f=0.029
/s 0.881ft ... AV Q
3
= = =
Example 4.8 Type II, Determine Flowrate

The turbine shown in Figure E8.11 extracts 50 hp from the water
flowing through it. The 1-ft-diameter, 300-ft-long pipe is assumed to
have a friction factor of 0.02. Minor losses are negligible. Determine
the flowrate through the pipe and turbine.
Example 4.8 Solution
1/2
The energy equation can be applied between the surface of the lake
and the outlet of the pipe as
T L 2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
+ + + +

= + +

Where p
1
=V
1
= p
2
=z
2
=0, z
1
=90ft, and V
2
=V, the fluid velocity in
the pipe
0 561 V 90 V 107 . 0
3
= +
ft V 0932 . 0
g 2
V
D
f h
2
2
L
= =

ft
V
561
...
Q
P
h
a
T
= =

=
There are two real, positive roots: V=6.58 ft/s or V=24.9 ft/s. The third
root is negative (V=-31.4ft/s) and has no physical meaning for this flow.
Example 4.8 Solution
2/2
Two acceptable flowrates are
s / ft 6 . 19 ... V D
4
Q
s / ft 17 . 5 ... V D
4
Q
3 2
3 2
= =
t
=
= =
t
=
However, in either case the product of the turbine head times the
flowrate is the same
Example 4.9 Type III Without Minor
Losses, Determine Diameter

Air at standard temperature and pressure flows through a horizontal,
galvanized iron pipe (=0.0005 ft) at a rate of 2.0ft
3
/s. Determine the
minimum pipe diameter if the pressure drop is to be no more than
0.50 psi per 100 ft of pipe.
Example 4.9 Solution
1/2
Assume the flow to be incompressible with =0.00238 slugs/ft
3
and
=3.7410
-7
lbs/ft
2.
If the pipe were too long, the pressure drop from one end to the other,
p
1
-p
2
, would not be small relative to the pressure at the beginning, and
compressible flow considerations would be required.
With z
1
=z
2
, V
1
=V
2
, The energy equation becomes
g
V
D
f p p
2
2 1

+ =

2
D
55 . 2
A
Q
V = =
g 2
V
) ft / slugs 00238 . 0 (
D
) ft 100 (
f ft / lb ) 144 )( 5 . 0 ( p p
2
3 2
2 1
= =
1/5
0.404f D=
(1)

Example 4.9 Solution
2/2
D
10 62 . 1
...
VD
Re
4

= =

=
(2)
(3)
D
0005 . 0
D
=
c
We have four equations (Eq. 1, 2, 3, and either the Moody chart or
the Colebrook equation) and four unknowns (f, D, /D, and Re)
from which the solution can be obtained by trial-and-error methods.
Repeat the iteration process
f D Re and /D f until convergence
(1) (2)
(3)
Example 4.10 Type III With Minor Losses,
Determine Diameter

Water at 60F (=1.2110
-5
ft
2
/s) is to flow from reservoir A to
reservoir B through a pipe of length 1700 ft and roughness 0.0005 ft
at a rate of Q= 26 ft
3
/s as shown in Figure. The system contains a
sharp-edged entrance and four flanged 45 elbow. Determine the
pipe diameter needed.
Example 4.10 Solution
1/2
The energy equation can be applied between two points on the
surfaces of the reservoirs (p
1
=V
1
= p
2
=z
2
=V
2
=0)
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ + +

= + +

L
2
1
L 2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
K
D
f
g 2
V
z
h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p

2
D
1 . 33
A
Q
V = = K
Lent
=0.5, K
Lelbow
=0.2, and K
Lexit
=1
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + = ] 1 5 . 0 ) 2 . 0 ( 4 [
D
1700
f
) s / ft 2 . 32 ( 2
V
ft 44
2
2
(1)
D 00135 . 0 D 00152 . 0 f
5
=
Example 4.10 Solution
2/2
D
10 74 . 2
...
VD
Re
6

= =
v
= (2)
(3)
D
0005 . 0
D
=
c
We have four equations (Eq. 1, 2, 3, and either the Moody chart or
the Colebrook equation) and four unknowns (f, D, /D, and Re)
from which the solution can be obtained by trial-and-error methods.
Repeat the iteration process
D f Re and /D f until convergence
(1) (2)
(3)
Multiple-Path Systems
Series and Parallel Pipe System
3 2 1 L L L 3 2 1
h h h Q Q Q Q = = + + =
3 2 1 B A L L L L 3 2 1
h h h h Q Q Q + + = = =

Multiple-Path Systems
Multiple Pipe Loop System
( )
( )
3 L 2 L
3 L 1 L B
2
B B
A
2
A A
2 L 1 L B
2
B B
A
2
A A
3 2 1
h h
3 1 h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
2 1 h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
Q Q Q
=
+ + + +

= + +

+ + + +

= + +

+ =
Multiple-Path Systems
Three-Reservoir System
If valve (1) was closed, reservoir B reservoir C
If valve (2) was closed, reservoir A reservoir C
If valve (3) was closed, reservoir A reservoir B
With all valves open.
( )
( ) C B h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
B A h h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
Q Q Q
3 L 2 L C
2
C C
B
2
B B
2 L 1 L B
2
B B
A
2
A A
3 2 1
+ + + +

= + +

+ + + +

= + +

+ =
Example 4.11 Three reservoir, Multiple
Pipe System

Three reservoirs are connected by three pipes as are shown in Figure
E8.14. For simplicity we assume that the diameter of each pipe is 1
ft, the frictional factor for each is 0.02, and because of the large
length-to-diameter ratio, minor losses are negligible. Determine the
flowrate into or out of each reservoir.
Example 4.11 Solution
1/4
The continuity equation requires that
By using the fact that p
A
=V
A
= p
C
=V
C
=z
C
=0
The diameters are the same for each pipe
3 2 1 3 2 1
V V V Q Q Q = + = +
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1 C
2
C C
A
2
A A

+ + + +

= + +

The energy equation for the fluid that flows from A to C in

pipes (1) and (3) can be written as
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1 A

+ =
2
2
2
1
V 4 . 0 V 322 + =
(2)
(1)
Flows out of
reservoir B
3

Example 4.11 Solution
2/4
Similarly the energy equation for fluid following from B to C
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2 C
2
C C
B
2
B B

+ + + +

= + +

g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2 B

+ =
2
3
2
2
V 4 . 0 V 5 . 0 4 . 64 + =
(3)
No solution to Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 with real, positive values of V
1
, V
2
,
and V
3
. Thus, our original assumption of flow out of
reservoir B must be incorrect.

Example 4.11 Solution
3/4
The continuity equation requires that
3 2 1 3 2 1
V V V Q Q Q + = + =
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z z
g 2
V
D
f
g 2
V
D
f z z
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1 C A
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1 B A


+ + =
+ + =
The energy equation between points A and B and A and C
2
3
2
1
V 4 . 0 V 322 + =
(5)
(4)
Flows into
reservoir B
2
2
2
1
V 5 . 0 V 258 + =
(6)
Solve
s / ft 88 . 2 V s / ft 9 . 15 V
2 1
= =

Example 4.11 Solution
4/4
The corresponding flowates are
C o int s / ft 2 . 10 Q Q Q
B o int s / ft 26 . 2 V A Q
A from s / ft 5 . 12 V A Q
3
2 1 3
3
2 2 2
3
1 1 1
= =
= =
= =
Flow Through
Immersed
Bodies
Definition
When any body moves through a fluid, an interaction between the
body and the fluid occurs; this effect can be described in terms of
the forces at the fluidbody interface.
The resultant force in the direction of the upstream velocity is
termed the drag, and the resultant force normal to the upstream
velocity is termed the lift, as is indicated in Fig.
When the Reynolds number is high enough to induce turbulence, we
again see an entrance region followed by fully-developed flow.
However, the structure of the entrance region is somewhat more
complicated. There is a laminar boundary layer near the entrance,
which transitions to a turbulent boundary layer eventually.



Flow Past a Flat plate
Boundary layer: Region next to
an object where fluid has its
velocity changed due to shear
resistance of the boundary.
Velocity gradient exists between
free stream and object, thus
shear stress exists at surface
which retards the flow.
Boundary layer grows in
downstream direction, until the
onset of turbulence
Shear stress is high at leading
edge and decreases until
transition and then increases
again

000 , 500 Re Transition , Re Plates
000 , 2 Re Transition , Re Pipes
~ =
~ =

Vx
VD
Flow Past a Flat plate
( )
( )
( )
L
L o
F
L
o
x
o
U A
F
C
BL U F
U
Re
1520
Re * 06 . 0 ln
523 . 0
: t Coefficien
Re
072 . 0
5 . 0 : Resistance
Re
058 . 0
5 . 0 : Stress
region Turbulent
2 2
5 / 1
2
5 / 1
2
= =
=
=

t
L
o
s
F
L o
x
o
U BL
F
C
U B F
x
U
Re
33 . 1
2 /
: t Coefficien
Re 664 . 0 : Resistance
Re 332 . 0 : Stress
region Laminar
2
= =
=
=

t
Shear Stress Coefficients
Shear stress coefficient = ratio
of shear stress at wall to
dynamic pressure of free
stream


Total shearing force

2 /
2
0
o
f
U
c

t
=
2 /
2
2
2
0
o
s
f
A
f
o
A
s
U
F
C
dA c
U
dA F

t
=
}
=
}
=
Lift of an Airfoil
Forces acting on airfoil: Velocity
over the top of foil is greater
than free stream velocity,
pressure there is less than free-
stream. Similarly, the pressure
on the bottom of the foil is
greater than free-stream pressure.
This difference in pressure
contributes to the lift of the foil.
Shear stress along the foil acts to
drag on the foil.
Drag of a Thin Plate
For a plate parallel to the flow,
shear forces are the only ones
acting


For a plate normal to the flow,
shear and pressure forces act


For a more general object
2
2
2
o
f D
V
BL C F =
2
) 2 . 1 8 . 0 (
2
o
D
V
BL F + =
2
2
o
p D D
V
A C F =
Drag Coefficients
Coefficient of Drag
2
2
o
p
D
D
V
A
F
C

=
Example 4.12
Given: Pressure distribution is shown,
flow is left to right.
Find: Find C
D
Solution: C
D
is based on the projected area
of the block from the direction of flow.
Force on downstream face is:


The total force on each side face is:

The drag force on one face is:
The total drag force is:


Coefficient of Drag is: C
D
=1

( ) 2 / 5 . 0 2 /
2 2
V A V A C F
p p p
Drag
D
= =
2 / 5 . 0 2 /
2 2
V A V A C F
p p p S
= =
( ) 5 . 0 * 2 / 5 . 0 sin
2
V A F F
p S
Drag
S
o = =
2 / 2 / 5 . 0 ) 5 . 0 * 2 / 5 . 0 ( * 2
) ( ) ( 2
2 2 2
V A C V A V A
F F F
p D p p
Drag
D
Drag
S Drag
= + =
+ =
Example 4.13
Given: Flag pole, 35 m high, 10 cm diameter, in 25-m/s wind, P
atm
=
100 kPa, T=20
o
C
Find: Moment at bottom of flag pole
Solution:

3 2 5
/ 20 . 1 , / 10 51 . 1 m kg s m x = =

v
5
5
10 66 . 1
10 51 . 1
1 . 0 * 25
Re x
x
VD
= = =

v
5) 11 (figure 95 . 0 =
D
C
kN
H V
A C
H
F M
o
p D D
8 . 21
2
35
*
2
25
* 2 . 1 * 35 * 10 . 0 * 95 . 0
2 2 2
2
2
=
=
= =
Example 4.14
Given: Spherical balloon 2-m
diameter, filled with helium @std
conditions. Empty weight = 3 N.
Find: Velocity of ascent.
Solution:

W
B
W
He
F
B
F
D
D
D
p D
D
o
o
p D D
C
C
A C
F
V
V
A C F
739 . 0
225 . 1 * 2 * ) 4 / (
422 . 1 * 2 2
2
2
2
= = =
=
t

N
D F
D F D
W W F F F
air
He air D
He D air
He B D B y
422 . 1
2
6
)
077 , 2
287
1 ( 3
6
) ( 3
6
3
6
0
3
3
3 3
=
=
=
+ =
+ = =
t

t

t

Iteration: Guess C
D
=0.4

s m V
o
/ 36 . 1
4 . 0
739 . 0
= =
Check Re

5
5
10 86 . 1
10 46 . 1
2 * 36 . 1
Re x
x
VD
= = =

v
Iteration: C
D
=0.42

s m V
o
/ 33 . 1
42 . 0
739 . 0
= =