Review of Basic Semiconductor Physics

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 1

 Current Flow and Conductivity
Area = A
• Charge in volume Ax = Q δ x = vδ t

= q n A  x = q n A vt
• Current density J = (Q/t)A-1 Electrons moving
Current with velocity v
=qnv Density
= J

• Metals - gold, platinum, silver, copper, etc.

• n = 1023 cm-3 ;  = 107 mhos-cm

• Insulators - silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide

• n < 103 cm-3 ; < 10-10 mhos-cm

• Semiconductors - silicon, gallium arsenide, diamond, etc.

• 108 < n <1019 cm-3 ; 10-10 << 104 mhos-cm

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 2

 Thermal Ionization
broken bond

-
• Si atoms have
thermal vibrations ionized

about equilibrium silicon

atom
+
point.

• Small percentage of
Si atoms have large
+
enough vibrational
energy to break -
covalent bond and free
electron
liberate an electron.

covalent bond
neutral silicon atom

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 3

 Electrons and Holes

• T3 > T 2 > T 1 -
A
t=T
• Density of free electrons 1
= n : Density of free
holes = p
generation of B
• p = n = ni(T) = intrinsic B
carrier density.
- +
A
• ni2(T) = C exp(-qEg/(kT ))
t=T
2
= 1020 cm-6 at 300 K
• T = temp in K
• k = 1.4x10-23 joules/ K recombination of B apparent
movement
of "Hole"
• Eg = energy gap = 1.1 -
eV in silicon A
t=T
3
• q = 1.6x10 coulombs
-19

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 4

 Doped Semiconductors

• Extrinsic (doped) semiconductors:p = po ≠ n = no ≠ ni

• Carrier density estimates:
• Law of mass action nopo = ni2(T)
• Charge neutrality Na + no = Nd + po

• P-type silicon with Na >> ni: • N-type silicon with Nd >> ni:
po ≈ Na , no ≈ ni2/ Na no ≈ Nd , po ≈ ni2/ Nd
extra valance

empty
- electron

-
bond

A D

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 5

 Nonequilibrium and Recombination
• Thermal Equilibrium - Carrier generation = Carrier recombination
• n = no and p = po

• Nonequilibrium - n > no and p > po

• n = no + n and p = no + n ; n = excess carrier density
• Excess holes and excess electrons created in equal numbers by breaking of covalent
bonds
• Generation mechanisms -light (photoelectric effect), injection, impact ionization

• Recombination - removal of excess holes and electrons

• Mechanisms - free electron captured by empty covalent bond (hole) or trapped by
impurity or crystal imperfection
• Rate equation: d(n)/dt = - n
• Solution n = n (0) e -t
Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 6
 Carrier Lifetimes

• = excess carrier lifetime

• Usually assumed to be constant. Changes in two important situations.
•  increases with temperature T
•  decreases at large excess carrier densities ;  = o/[1 + (n/nb)2 ]

• Control of carrier lifetime values.

• Switching time-on state loss tradeoff mandates good lifetime control.
• Control via use of impurities such as gold - lifetime killers.
• Control via electron irradiation - more uniform and better control.

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 7

 Current Flow
Drift Diffusion
δn δp
+ +
-
-
ε
J
+ p
- Jn

+
-
- +

x x
+ V -
• Jdiff = Jn + Jp = q Dndn/dx - q Dp dp/dx
• Jdrift = q µn n E + q p µp E
• Dn/n = Dp/p = kT/q ; Einstein relation
• µn = 1500 cm2/V-sec for silicon at
room temp. and Nd < 1015 cm-3 • D = diffusion constant,  = carrier mobility

• µp = 500 cm2/V-sec for silicon at

room temp. and Na < 1015 cm-3 • Total current density J = Jdrift + Jdiff

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 8

 PN Junction

metallurgical junction

P N

N N N
N A D
A D

N N
A A

x x

- N
D - N
D

Step (abrupt) junction Linearly graded junction

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 9

 Formation of Space Charge Layer

metallurgical
junction x
• Diffusing electrons and holes ionized ionized
leave the region near acceptors donors
metallurgical junction depleted
of free carriers (depletion P + N
region). + +
Electric
field
- opposing
diffusion
• Exposed ionized impurities - +
Diffusing
form space charge layer.
electrons + +
Diffusing
holes
+
-
• Electric field due to space + +
charge opposes diffusion.

space charge
layer width = W

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 10

 Quantitative Description of Space Charge Region
ρ
• Assume step junction. qN
d

d2Φ ρ x
= -ε -x p xn
dx 2
ρ = -qN a ; x < 0 -qN a

w
ρ = qN d ; x > 0
Ε

dΦ
= - E(x) x
dx
qN a(x+x p )
E(x) = ε ;- x p < x < 0
qN d (x-x n) Ε max
E(x) = ε ;0< x < x n

xn
Φ
Φc = - ⌠ E(x )d x
⌡
x
- xp
Φ
c
q Na x p 2   +  q Nd x n 2
Φc = - depletion layer
2ε

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 11

 Contact (Built-in, Junction) Potential

dΦ dn
• In thermal equilibrium Jn = q µn n + q Dn =0
dx dx

Φ(xn) n(xn)
Dn ⌠ dn
• Separate variables and integrate ; ⌡ dΦ
⌠
= -µ ⎮
⌡ n
Φ(xp) n
n(xp)

kT ⎡N aN d⎤
• Φ(xn)-Φ(xp)= Φc = ln⎢ ⎥ ;Φc = contactpotential
q n 2
⎣ i ⎦

• Exam ple

• Room tem perature kT/q = 0.025 eV

• N a = N d = 1016 cm -3 ; ni2 = 1020 cm -6
• Fc = 0.72 eV

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 12

 Reverse-Biased Step Junction
• St a rt ing e q ua t io ns

• W( V) = x n ( V) + x p ( V) V +
+
qN axp2   +  qN dxn2 P
+
N
• V + Φc = -
2ε
+ +
+
• Charge neutrality qN axp = qN dxn Wo
W( V )
Φ
• Solve equations sim ultaneously

• W (V ) = W o 1+V /Φc x
Φ
c

2εΦc(N a+N d) Φc + V
• Wo=
qN aN d
x n(V )
2Φc
-x (V )
• Em ax = 1  +  V /Φc p
Wo

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 13

 Forward-Biased PN Junction

++ N
P • Forward bias favors
+ diffusion over drift.
p-side drift n-side drift
region
W(V) region
Wo
ni 2 qV • Excess minority
ni2 p n (0) = exp( )
exp(
qV
) = n p (0)
Nd kT carrier injection into
Na kT
both p and n drift
x p n (x) = p n (0) exp(
x
) regions.
np (x) = n p (0) exp( - ) Lp
Ln

n po
p
no
• Minority carrier
x diffusion lengths.

 - ∞ ⎡ ni2 ⎤   ∞ ⎡ ni2 ⎤ • Ln = [Dnn]0.5

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Qn = ∫ n p(x)dx = q⎢np (0) -    ⎥ Q p =  p n(x)dx = q⎢p n(0) - 
∫   ⎥
⎣ Na ⎦ ⎣ Nd ⎦
0 0 • Lp = [Dpp]0.5

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 14

 Ideal PN Junction I-V Characteristics
• Excess carriers in drift regions recombined and thus more must be constantly injected if
the distributions np(x) and pn(x) are to be maintained.
• Constant injection of electrons and holes results in a current density J given by

Qn Qp ⎡ Ln Lp ⎤ ⎡ qV ⎤
2
J = τ + τ = q ni ⎢ + ⎥ ⎢
exp( )  -  1 ⎥⎥
n p N N ⎢ kT
⎣ an
τ d p⎦
τ ⎣ ⎦

⎡ qV ⎤ ⎡ Ln Lp ⎤
J= Js
⎢
exp( )  - 
⎥
1⎥ 2
; Js = q ni ⎢ + ⎥
⎢
⎣ kT ⎦ ⎣N aτn N d τp ⎦

J i
J
v
- J s

v
reverse combined
forward bias bias characteristic v

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 15

 Reverse Saturation Current

• Carrier density gradient

V + immediately adjacent to
depletion region causes
+
+ reverse saturation current to
P N
+ + flow via diffusion.

Wo • Js independent of reverse
W(V) voltage V because carrier
density gradient unaffected by
applied voltage.
n po
p
no
+
• Js extremely temperature
n (x)
p p (x)
n sensitivity because of
dependence on ni2(T.)
x
Electric field, J
s
Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 16
 Impact Ionization
-
• E ≥ EBD ; free electron can
Si
acquire sufficient from the field
between lattice collisions (tc ≈ - -

10-12 sec) to break covalent bond. - Si

• Energy = 0.5mv2 = q Eg ; v = q EBDtc -

-
• Solving for EBD gives Si
2  Eg  m
EBD = Electric field E -
q  tc2
• Numerical evaluation

• m = 10-27 grams, Eg = 1.1 eV, tc = 10-12 sec.

(2)  (1.1)  (1027)

• EBD = = 3x105 V/cm
-19
(1.6x10 )  (10 ) -24

• Experimental estimates are 2-3.5x105 V/cm

Copyright © by John Wiley & Sons 2003 Semiconductor Physics - 17