Thermodynamics II - Chapter 8 - V 1.3

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Islamic University- Gaza. Lecture notes for Thermodynamics II by Dr.
Mohammed Alnahhal

Dr. Mohammed H. Alnahhal

EMEC 3313
Thermodynamics II

Contact Information
Email: mohmd_iut@yahoo.com
Mobile: 059 251 7788
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Islamic University- Gaza. Lecture notes for Thermodynamics II by Dr. Mohammed Alnahhal
Text Book

Yunus A. engel and Michael A. Boles. Thermodynamics, an Engineering
Approach. McGrawHill. (Fifth or Sixth edition).

Further Readings

Tharwat W. Abou-Arab and Mohy S. Mansour, Thermodynamics. Cairo
University (2011, Lecture Notes).
Khurmi R.S. and Gupta J.K. A text book of Thermal Engineering
(Mechanical Technology, SI Units). S. Chand & Company Ltd. (First
edition, 1999).
Som S.K. Basic Thermodynamics Indian Institute of Technology, IIT
Kharagpur. (Video lectures).
2
Topics

1. Availability and Irreversibility
2. Vapor combined power cycles
3. Refrigeration cycles
4. Thermodynamics relations
5. Gas mixtures
6. Gas vapor mixtures and air conditioning
7. Combustion processes and equilibrium
8. Compressors
9. Steam generators (if time permits)
10. Internal combustion engine (if time permits)
Grading policy

Attendance/ presentations/ quizzes: 30 %
Mid exam: 30 %
Final exam: 40 %
3
Availability and Irreversibility
Text: Chapter 8: Exergy: a measure of work potential
Exergy: definition?

Other names: Available energy or Work Potential or Availability

Importance
Examples:

Power plant

Human life style
4
Work output and reversibility
Maximum work output is obtained in reversible processes; processes
that can reverse themselves and restore the system to its initial state. If not, the
process will be called irreversible
If the pressure in the cylinder reaches the pressure in its surroundings, no
more work can be done by the cylinder. That means the cylinder reaches its
dead state, and the work done by this cylinder reaches its maximum value.
5
When the system is in dead state?
Dead State
Thermodynamic Equilibrium between the system and environment

Thermal equilibrium
- no temperature difference exists otherwise additional work can be produced
by heat engine to transfer heat into work.

Mechanical equilibrium
- no pressure difference exists otherwise we can obtain work by letting the
system to expand to the surrounding pressure.
- if final velocity of the system is not zero, we can catch extra kinetic energy
by turbine and convert it to rotating shaft work

Chemical equilibrium
- no chemical reaction between the system and surrounding

6
Exergy Definition
it is the maximum possible work delivered by a system as it undergoes a
reversible process from a specific initial state to the state of the
surrounding, thats is dead state.

Exergy doesnt represent the amount of work that a work producing
device will actually deliver upon installation rather it represents the
upper limit on the amount of work a device can deliver.

There will be a difference big or small between the exergy and the
actual work delivered by a device. Engineers want to make this
difference small, Why?

Exergy of a system at a specified state depends on the condition of the
environment (dead state) as well as the properties of the system.
Therefore exergy is a property of system-environment combination
and not on the system alone.

7
Since exergy depends on both system and environment, we should
be able to distinct between the following:

1) surroundings
are every thing outside the system boundaries

2) Immediate surroundings
refer to the portion of the surroundings that is affected by the process

3) environment
refers to the region beyond the immediate surroundings whose
properties are not affected by the process at any point.

Example:
when analyzing the cooling of a hot
baked potato in a room at 25
o
C the
warm air that surrounds the potato is
the immediate surroundings and the
remaining part of the room air at
25
o
C is the environment

8
Exergy Associated with kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is a form of mechanical energy and thus it can be converted to
work entirely. Therefore, work potential or exergy of kinetic energy of a system
is equal to kinetic energy it self.

x
ke
= ke= v
2
/2 (Kj/kg)
Exergy Associated with potential energy

Kinetic energy is a form of mechanical energy and thus it can be converted to
work entirely. Therefore, work potential or exergy of potential energy of a
system is equal to potential energy it self.

x
pe
= pe= gz (Kj/kg)
9
Reversible work and irreversibility

The property exergy serves as a valuable tool in determining the
quality of energy and comparing the work potential of different
energy sources or systems. However the evaluation of exergy
alone is not sufficient for studying engineering devices since the
evaluation is made by assuming the final state is at dead state
which is hardly ever the case for actual engineering system.

The isentropic efficiency are also of limited use because the exit
state is not the same as the actual exit state and it is limited to
adiabatic ones.

Reversible work is related to initial and final states of processes,
hence serves as valuable tools in thermodynamics analysis of
systems.
Irreversibility can be defined as exergy destruction.

10

Surrounding work, W
sur

The work done by work-producing devices is not always
entirely useable form. For example when a gas in piston-
cylinder device expands part of the work done by the gas
is used to push the atmospheric air out of the way of the
piston. This work which can not be recovered is equal to
atmospheric pressure P
0
times the volume change of the
system.

W
sur
= P
0
( V
2
V
1
)
11
Useful work, W
u

The difference between actual work W and surrounding
work W
sur
is called useful work, W
u

W
u =
W W
surr
=
W P
o
(V
2
V
1
)
W
sur
is loss when system is expanding
W
sur
is gain when system is compressed.

12
Reversible work, W
rev

The maximum amount of useful work that can be produced
as a system undergoes a process between the specified
initial and final states.

For processes that require work , reversible work
represent the minimum amount of work necessary to
carry out the process

When the final state is the dead state, the reversible work
equals to exergy.
W
rev
=
th,rev
. Q
in
= (1-T
sink
/T
source
) . Q
in
Irreversibility, I

Irreversibility is the difference between reversible work and useful
work.
I = W
rev-
W
u

13
Second law efficiency,
II

Thermal efficiency is used as a measure of device performance,
and sometimes called first law efficiency. First law efficiency makes
no reference to the best possible performance and thus it is may
be misleading.

rev,A
= (1-T
L
/T
H
)
A
= 1-300/600 = 50 %

rev,B
= (1-T
L
/T
H
)
B
= 1-300/1000 = 70 %
14
Based on the above example that first law of thermodynamics
efficiency is not a realistic measure for the performance of engineering
devices. To overcome this deficiency, second law efficiency
II
is
defined, which is the ratio of actual thermal efficiency to the maximum
possible reversible thermal efficiency.
II=
th
/
th,rev
(for heat engine)
Going back to the previous example, the second law effeciencies of
the two heat engines are
II, A=
thA
/
th,revA
= 0.30 / 0.50 = 0.6

II, B=
thB
/
th,revB
= 0.30 / 0.70 = 0.43

Discussion: engine A is converting 60 % of the avilable work potential to
useful work but engine B 43 %.
15
Second law efficiency

For work producing devices suc as heat engines

II=

th
/
th,rev
= W
u
/W
rev

For work consuming devices such as refrigerators or heat pump
II
= W
rev
/W
u
= COP / COP
rev

16
17
Coefficient of Performance, COP
For a refrigerator
The efficiency of refrigerator is sometimes expressed in terms of coefficient of
performance, (COP), denoted by COP
R
. The objective of the refrigerator is to
remove heat Q
L
from refrigerated space. To accomplish this objective, it requires
a work input of W
net,in
,. Then the COP of a refrigerator can be expressed by

COP
R
= Desired output / Required input
= Q
L
/ W
net,in

= Q
L
/ (Q
H
Q
L
) (where, W
net,in
= Q
H
Q
L
)

= 1 / (Q
H
/ Q
L
1 )

For a heat pump
A device that transfer heat from low temperature medium to a high
temperature one, is known as heat pump. Heat pump maintain heated space at
high temperature. This accomplished by absorbing heat from low temperature
source such as cold outside air in winter and supplies heat to the high
temperature medium such as house.

COP
HP
= Desired output / Required input
= Q
H
/ W
net,in
= Q
H
/ (Q
H
Q
L
) (where, W
net,in
= Q
H
Q
L
)
= 1 / (1- Q
L
/ Q
H
)

Exergy change of a system
The property exergy is the work potential of a system in specified
environment and represent the maximum amount of useful work that can be
obtained as the system is brought to equilibrium with the environment

Unlike energy, the value of exergy depends on the state of the
environment as well as the state of the system, therefore the exergy is a
combination property.

The exergy of a system that is in equilibrium with its environment is zero.

The state of the environment is referred to as the dead state since the
system is practically dead (can not produce work) from the thermodynamics
point of view when it reaches that state.

18
Exergy of a Fixed Mass
Nonflow (or Closed system) Exergy
In general, internal energy consists of sensible, latent, chemical
and nuclear energies. However in the absence of any chemical and
nuclear reactions, the chemical and nuclear energies can be
disregarded and the internal energy can be considered to consist of
only sensible and latent energies that can be transferred from the
system as heat whenever there is temperature difference across the
system.

The second law of thermodynamics states that heat can not be
converted to work entirely, and thus the work potential of internal
energy must be less than the internal energy its self (Part of internal
energy will be lost as e.g. heat loss).

19
Cont., Exergy of a Fixed Mass
System:
Piston cylinder device
Fluid at mass, m
Temperature, T
Pressure, P
Volume, V
Internal energy, U
Entropy, S
Useful work (boundary), W
b,useful

Environment
Temperature, T
0
Pressure, P
0
entropy, S
0

Heat engine
Work done by engine, W
HE

20
W
b,useful
= W W
surr

W = W
b,useful
+ W
surr

W = PdV = (P P
0
) dV+ P
0
dV = W
b,useful
+ W
sur
(2)

- Q W = dU (1)

W
HE
= (1- T
0
/T) Q= Q - T
0
Q/T (ds= Q/T)

= Q ( T
0
ds)
Q = W
HE
T
0
ds (3)

21
Now substituting the Q and W from equation 2 and 3 into the energy balance
relation gives after rearranging

Q W = dU
W
HE
+ T
0
ds (P P
0
) dV P
0
dV= dU
W
total,useful
= W
HE
+ (P P
0
) dV= dU P
0
dV + T
0
ds

dU + T
0
ds P
0
dV = W
HE
+ (P P
0
) dV
Now integrating from given state (no subscript) to dead state (0 subscript) we obtain:

W
total useful
=(UU
0
) + P
0
(VV
0
) T
0
(SS
0
)
W
total useful
is the total useful work delivered as the system undergoes
a reversible process from the given state to the dead state,
which is the exergy by definition
22
A closed system , in general may posses kinetic and potential energies, and the
total energy of closed system is equal to the sum of internal, kinetic and
potential energies. Noting kinetic and potential energies themselves are forms of
exergy. The exergy of a closed system of mass m is
X = (UU
0
) + P
0
(VV
0
) T
0
(SS
0
) + m V
2
/ 2 + mgz
On a unit mass basis, closed system (non flow) exergy, is expressed by
= (uu
0
) + P
0
(vv
0
) T
0
(ss
0
) + V
2
/ 2 + gz
23
=
2

1
= (u
2
u
1
) + P
0
(v
2
v
1
) T
0
(s
2
s
1
) + (V
2
2
V
1
2
)

/ 2 + g (z
2
-z
1
)
The exergy change of a closed system during a process is simply the difference
between the final and initial exergies of the system, per unit mass
X = X
2
X
1
= (U
2
U
1
) + P
0
(V
2
V
1
) T
0
(S
2
S
1
) + m(V
2
2
V
1
2
)

/ 2 + mg (z
2
-z
1
)
The exergy change of a closed system during a process is simply the difference
between the final and initial exergies of the system
Exergy of a Flow stream
Flow (or Stream) Exergy
The flowing fluid has additional energy which is called flow energy, which is
the energy needed to maintain the flow in pipe or ducts and is expressed by w
flow

=Pv where v is the specific volume of a fluid.

The flow work is essentially the boundary work done by a fluid on the fluid
downstream, and thus the exergy associated with the flow work is equivalent
with the exergy associated with boundary work.
24
Cont., Exergy of a Flow stream
Flow:
Fluid at mass, m
Temperature, T
Pressure, P
Volume, V
Internal energy, U
Entropy, S
Enthalpy, h
Flow work, W
flow

Environment
Temperature, T
0
Pressure, P
0
Entropy, S
0
Enthalpy, h
0

25
Cont., Exergy of a Flow stream
Exergy associated with flow work

W
u
= W - W
surr
= Pv - P
0
v = (P - P
0
) v

x
flow
= (P - P
0
) v

Exergy with flowing fluid is the summation of flow exergy and nonflowing exergy
x
flowing fluid
= x
nonflowing fluid
+ x
flow

= (uu
0
) + P
0
(vv
0
) T
0
(ss
0
) + V
2
/ 2 + gz+ (P - P
0
) v

= (u + Pv) - (u
0
+ P
0
v
0
) T
0
(ss
0
) + V
2
/ 2 + gz

= (h - h
0
) T
0
(ss
0
) + V
2
/ 2 + gz
The final expression is called flow (or stream ) exergy and is denoted by
Flow exergy, = (h - h
0
) T
0
(ss
0
) + V
2
/ 2 + gz
26
=
2

1
= (h
2
h
1
) T
0
(s
2
s
1
) + (V
2
2
V
1
2
)

/ 2 + g (z
2
-z
1
)
The exergy change of a fluid stream as it undergoes a process from state 1 to 2
becomes:
Exergy Transfer By Heat, Work, and Mass
Exergy, like energy can be transffered to or from a system in three
forms: heat, work, and mass transfer. Exergy transfer can be recognized at
the system boundary as exergy crosses it, and it represents the exergy
gained or lost by a system during a process.

.The only two form of exergy interactions associated with a closed
system or fixed mass are heat transfer and work.

27
1. Exergy Transfer By Heat
By the second law we know that only a portion of heat transfer at a
temperature above the environment temperature can be converted into
work. The maximum useful work is produced from it by passing this heat
transfer through a reversible heat engine. The exergy transfer by heat is

. Exergy transfer by heat is zero for adiabatic systems.

28
0
heat
1
T
X Q
T
| |
=
|
\ .
Exergy transfer by heat:
2. Exergy Transfer By Work
Exergy is the useful work potential. For boundary work, such as the
expansion work of a piston-cylinder device, a portion of work is used to
push the atmosphere air away and it cannot be utilized. Thus, the exergy
transfer by the expansion work equals the difference between the
expansion work and the surroundings work, that is,

X
b
= W W
surr

Where, W
sur
= P
0
(V
2
- V
1
), P
0
is the atmospheric pressure

.Other type of work, such as shaft work and electric work, can be
completely utilized. Therefore, the exergy transfer by shaft work or electric
work is equal to the work itself.
X
W
= W

29
Exergy transfer by work:
surr
work
(for boundary work)
(for other forms of work)
W W
X
W

=

3. Exergy Transfer Mass
Mass contain exergy as well as energy and entropy, and the exergy,
energy and entropy contents of a system are proportional to mass. Also,
the rates of exergy, entropy, and energy transport into or out of a system
are proportional to the mass flow rate. Mass flow is a mechanism to
transport exergy, energy and entropy into or out of a system. When mass
in the amount of m enters or leaves a system, exergy in the amount of m,
where = (h - h
0
) T
0
(ss
0
) + V
2
/ 2 + gz accompanies it

Exergy transfer by mass, X
mas
= m

.Therefore, the exergy of a system increases by m when mass in the
amount of m enters, and decreases by the same amount of mass at the
same state leaves the system.
30
Exergy Destruction
31
Irreversibilities such friction , chemical reaction, unrestrained expansion
nonquasi-equilibrium compression or expansion always generates entropy and
any thing generates entropy destroy exergy. The exergy destroyed is
proportional to the entropy generated, is expressed as

X
destroyed
= T
0
S
gen
0 (S
gen
is entropy generated)

Exergy destroyed is a positive quantity for any actual process and becomes
zero for a reversible process.

Exergy destroyed represents the lost work potential and is also called the
irreversibility or lost work.

32
Example 1.1

Consider a large furnace that can transfer heat at a temperature of 1100 K at
steady rate of 3000 kW. Determine the rate of exergy flow associated with this
heat transfer. Assume an environment temperature of 25
o
C

Solution:

Heat is being supplied by a large furnace at a specified temperature. The rate of
exergy is to be determined.

Analysis:
The furnace in this example can be modeled as a heat reservoir that supplies
heat indefinitely at a constant temperature. The exergy of this heat energy is its
useful work potential, thats is the maximum possible amount of work that can be
extracted from it. This corresponds to the amount of work that a reversible heat
engine operating between furnace and environment can produce

Examples
33
Cont., Examples
The thermal of this reversible heat engine is given by

th,rev
. = (1-T
L
/T
H
)

= (1 298 K / 1100 K

= 0.729 ( or 72.9 %)

That is a heat engine can convert, at best 72.9 percent of heat received from this
furnace to work, Thus the exergy of this furnace is equivalent to the power
produced by reversible heat engine:

W
max
= W
rev
=
th,rev
. Q

=

(0.729) ( 3000 kW)

= 2187 kW Answered
Discussion:
Notice that 27.1 % of the heat transferred from the furnace is not available for
doing work. This portion of energy can not be converted to work is called
unavailable energy

34
Example 1.2

A heat engine receives heat from a source at 1500 K at a rate of 700 KJ/s and
rejects the waste heat to a medium at 320 K. The measured power output of the
heat engine is 320 kW and the environment temperature is 25
o
C. Determine 1)
the reversible work and 2) the irreversibility 3) second law efficiency.

Solution:
Heat is received from a source at 1500 K rejecting to a medium at 320 K.
Reversible work as well as the irreversibility to be determined.

Reversible efficiency,
th,rev
th,rev
. = (1-T
L
/T
H
)
= ( 1- 320 K/ 1500 K)
= 0.787 (78.7%)

Reversible work
W
rev
=
th,rev
. Q

=

(0.787) ( 700 kW)
= 550.9 kW Answered

Cont., Examples
35
Irreversabilities, I
I = Wrev - Wu
= 550.9 kW 320 kW
= 230.9 kW Answered

Thermal Efficiency,
th

th,
= W
out
/ Q
in

= ( 320 kW / 700 kW)
= 0.457 (45.7%)

Second law efficiency,
II

II
=
th
/
th,rev

= 0.457 / 0.787
= 0.581 (58.1 %) Answered
Cont., Examples
36
Example 1.3

Refrigerant 134a is to be compressed from 0.14 MPa and 10
o
C to 0.8 MPa
and 50
o
C steadily by a compressor. Taking the environment condition to be 20
o
C and 95 kPa, determine the exergy change of refrigerant during this process
and the minimum work input that needs to be supplied to the compressor per unit
mass of the refrigerant

Solution:

Refrigerant 134a is being compressed from a specified inlet state to a specified
fixed state. The exergy change of the refrigerant and the minmum compression
work per unit mass are to be determined.

Assumptions::
Steady operating conditions exit and The kinetic and potential energies are
negligible.

Cont., Examples
37
Analysis:
We take the compressor as a system. This is a control volume since mass crosses
the system boundary during the process.

The properties of the refrigerant at the inlet and exit states are:

Inlet state P
1
= 0.14 Mpa
T
1
= -10
o
C
From properties table corresponding P
1
and T
1
h
1
= 246.36 kJ/kg
S
1
= 0.9724 kJ/kg.K

Exit state P
2
= 0.8 Mpa
T
2
= 50
o
C
From properties table corresponding P
2
and T
2
h
2
= 286.69 kJ/kg
S
2
= 0.8802 kJ/kg.K
38
The exergy change of the refrigerant during this compression process is
determined directly from this relation:

=
2

1
= (h
2
h
1
) T
0
(s
2
s
1
) + (V
2
2
V
1
2
)

/ 2 + g (z
2
-z
1
)

= (h
2
h
1
) T
0
(s
2
s
1
)

= (286.69 246.36) kJ/kg (293 K) [ (0.9802 0.9724) kJ/kg.K ]

= 38.0 kJ/kg Answered

Therefore, the exergy of the refrigerant increases during compression by 38.0
kj/kg

The exergy change of a system in a specified environment represents the
reversible work in that environment which is the minimum work input required for
work consuming devises such as compressors. Therefore the increase in exergy
of the refrigerant is equal to the minimum work that needs to be supplied to the
compressors
w
in,min
=
2

1
= 38.0 kJ/kg Answered
0 0
Cont., Examples

Thermodynamics II - Chapter 8 - V 1.3

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Thermodynamics II - Chapter 8 - V 1.3

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Islamic University- Gaza. Lecture notes for Thermodynamics II by Dr.

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi