THERMOREGULATION

Control of body temperature

2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Modes of Heat Exchange
Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic
waves by all objects warmer than absolute
zero. Radiation can transfer heat between
objects that are not in direct contact, as when
a lizard absorbs heat radiating from the sun.
Evaporation is the removal of heat from the surface of a
liquid that is losing some of its molecules as gas.
Evaporation of water from a lizards moist surfaces that
are exposed to the environment has a strong cooling effect.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the
movement of air or liquid past a surface,
as when a breeze contributes to heat loss
from a lizards dry skin, or blood moves
heat from the body core to the extremities.
Conduction is the direct transfer of thermal motion (heat)
between molecules of objects in direct contact with each
other, as when a lizard sits on a hot rock.
Figure 40.13
Description of the System
Physical, Chemical, Behavioral Processes
Definition of Body Temperature is not well defined
Head, trunk, arm, hand, thigh, skin, fat, muscle, bone, lung,
viscera, brain, blood
2.4C difference between skin and blood temp.
Most important is core body temperature (i.e.: baseball player)
Best place to measure core body temperature
Lower esophagus Combination of rectal + skin [8]


Here taken as rectal temperature
sk re b T T T 33 . 67 .
Core temperature
The core temperature of the human body is
37C
The core of the human body includes the organs
of the thorax, abdomen and the head
This is where the vital organs are located
Their enzyme systems must operate in optimum
conditions
The periphery of the body can withstand some
deviation from the core temperature
2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Measurements of Temperature
Oral
Rectal
Tympanic membrane
Axillary
Other

Passive-Active Model
Passive: cant be controlled by the body (normally)
Radiation
Convection - transport of energy due to motion of the heat transfer
medium (i.e.: air, blood)
- air motion will strip away the heated layer
surrounding the skin
Conduction heat transfer through contact
Evaporation
Active: can be modulated by body
Sweat glands, dilation of blood vessels, shivering, behavioral
processes (neglected in this model)

Heat loss and heat gain
The body must balance its heat budget
Heat is gained:
by conduction from warm air surrounding the body
by the bodys metabolic activity which generates heat
e.g. when muscle move
Heat is lost:
by conduction and radiation to cold air (or water)
by evaporation of sweat from the body surface
(c.f. properties of water)
Humans can also affect their body temperature by
changing their behaviour
e.g. wearing different clothes, seeking shade
2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Maintaining the body temperature
Keeping warm Staying cool
Increased insulation,
subcutaneous fat reduces
the conduction of heat from
the body
Increase blood flow to skin,
increases conduction and
radiation of heat from the
body
Reduced sweating
decreases evaporation
Increased sweat secretion,
increases evaporation
Increased shivering,
increases heat produced by
muscle tissue 2 to 5 times
Reduced activity
2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Sympathetic nerves effect
Production of sweat is stimulated by
sympathetic nerves to the glands.
These nerves release acetylcholine rather than
the usual sympathetic neurotransmitter
norepinephrine.
Sweat is a dilute solution containing sodium
chloride as its major solute. Sweating rates of
over 4 L/h have been reported; the evaporation
of 4 L of water would eliminate almost 2400 kcal
from the body.
Insulation
Insulation, which is a major thermoregulatory
adaptation in mammals and birds
Reduces the flow of heat between an animal and
its environment
May include feathers, fur, or blubber
Hair
Sweat
pore
Muscle
Nerve
Sweat
gland
Oil gland
Hair follicle
Blood vessels
Adipose tissue
Hypodermis
Dermis
Epidermis
In mammals, the integumentary system
Acts as insulating material
Figure 40.14
In vasodilation
Blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat
loss
In vasoconstriction
Blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat
loss
Heat Exchange in the Skin
Pretty pictures
Thermoregulation
Human beings generally maintain
consistent body temperatures in health
Normal body temperature - a range
Individual variation
Balance between heat gained and lost
Heat gain - metabolic processes, exercise,
shivering
Heat loss - convection, conduction
radiation
Thermoregulation (Cont'd)
Temperature sensitive preoptic region
"regulates" body temperature by
integrating thermal input signals from
thermosensors in the skin and core areas
Concept of thermal set point
Thermoregulation in Heat
For the linguistically impaired:
Fever
Pathogenesis
Exogenous pyrogens
Pyrogenic cytokines
Interleukin 1 (1L-1)
Tumor necrosis factor
Interleukin-6
Interferon - gamma
Fever
Pathogenesis (Contd)
Pyrogenic cytokines produced
predominantly by mononuclear
phagocytes but also other cells
Complex relationships among cytokines
Raising thermoregulatory set point
Local mediators
Questions remain regarding exact
mechanisms

Fever
Pathogenesis (Contd)
Increased set point triggers heat conservation
(vasoconstriction) and heat production
(shivering and metabolism)
Signals also to cerebral control for behavior
changes
Hypothesis-interaction between pyrogenic
cytokines and their receptors in anterior
hypothalamus, liberation of PGE2 by increasing
cyclooxygenase expression
Fever
Pathogenesis (Contd)
Pyrogenic cytokines have short
intravascular half lives
Active in picomolar quantities
Following release of pyrogenic cytokines,
increased shedding of soluble receptors,
function as endogenous inhibitors

Fever
Pathogenesis (Contd)
Exact biologic function of circulating receptor
antagonists unknown
? serve as natural braking system
Mechanism of fever in non-infectious diseases
Connective tissue disorders-most probably
similar to above
Malignancy
Spontaneous production of lL1, leukemic cells
Lymphomas lL1, TNF a, melanoma,
hepatoblastoma, sarcoma, ovarian cell
carcinoma
Fever
Acute Phase Response
Fever is one manifestation of cytokine
mediated response
Other physiologic responses
Somnolence, anorexia
Altered synthesis of hormones
Increase in total circulating PMN and
bands
Fever
Acute Phase Response
Increase in hepatic acute phase protein
c-reactive protein, fibrinogen,
haptoglobin, ceruloplasmin, ferritin,
amyloid A protein, complement,
antiproteases
? Role of acute phase proteins
?help contain pathogens and their toxins
Suppression of "household" proteins-
albumin, lipoprotein lipase, cytochrome
P450, altered drug and lipid metabolism
nerves
Less heat generated
More water covers the
skin.
More evaporation
Skin arteries dilate
More blood to the
skin.
More radiation &
conduction of heat

Muscles of
skin arteriole
walls relax
Sweat
glands
increase
secretion
Muscles
reduce
activity
Core body
temperature
>37C
Hypothalamus
Thermoreceptors
2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Thermoreceptors
Return
to 37C
Muscles of
skin
arteriole
walls relax
Core body
temperature
>37C
Hypothalamus
Sweat
glands
increase
secretion
nerves
Muscles
reduce
activity
Thermoreceptors
NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK
Blood
temperature
Body
loses
heat
2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Most homeostatic control systems function by
negative feedback
Where buildup of the end product of the system
shuts the system off

nerves
More heat
generated
Less water covers the
skin.
Less evaporation
Skin arteries
constrict
Less blood to the
skin.
Less radiation &
conduction of heat

Muscles of
skin arteriole
walls
constrict
Sweat
glands
decrease
secretion
Muscles
shivering
nerves
Core body
temperature
<37C
Thermoreceptors
Hypothalamus
2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Thermoreceptors
Return
to 37C
NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK
Blood
temperature
Body
loses
less
heat
Body
gains
heat
Muscles of
skin
arteriole
walls
constrict
Core body
temperature
<37C
Sweat
glands
decrease
secretion
nerves
Muscles
shivering
Thermoreceptors Hypothalamus
nerves
2008 Paul Billiet ODWS