Thermodynamics Research Laboratory

Mapa Institute of Technology

Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
POWER AND REFRIGERATION
SYSTEMS: GASEOUS WORKING
FLUIDS
Lecturer: Prof. Allan N. Soriano, Ph.D. Ch.E.
Email: allannsoriano@yahoo.com
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Overview
Previously, we have studied power and refrigeration
systems that utilize condensing working fluids, in particular
those involving steady-state flow processes with shaft work.
In this part, we continue the power and refrigeration study
involving steady-state flow processes, but those with gaseous
working fluids throughout, recognizing that the difference in
expansion and compression work terms is considerably
smaller.
- It was noted that condensing working fluids have the
maximum difference in the - }vdP work terms between the
expansion and compression processes.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Power Cycles
The basic model used with gaseous power systems.
A closed cycle devised to closely approximate the open
cycles such as the internal combustion engines.
- In internal combustion engines there is a change in the
composition of the working fluid, because during
combustion it changes from air and fuel to combustion
products.
- In contrast, the steam power plant may be called an
external combustion engines because heat is transferred
from the products of the combustion to the working fluid.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Power Cycles
Model Assumptions:
1. A fixed mass of air is the working fluid throughout the entire
cycle, and the air is always an ideal gas. Thus, there is no inlet
process or exhaust process.
2. The combustion process is replaced by a process transferring
heat from an external source.
3. The cycle is completed by heat transfer to the surroundings
(in contrast to the exhaust and intake process of an actual
engine).
4. All processes are internally reversible.
5. An additional assumption is often made that air has a constant
specific heat, evaluated at 300 K, called cold air properties,
recognizing that this is not the most accurate model.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Power Cycles
The principal value of the air-standard cycle is to enable us
to examine qualitatively the influence of a number of
variables on performance.
- The qualitative results obtained from the air-standard cycle,
such as efficiency and mean effective pressure, will differ from
those of the actual engine.
- Mean effective pressure is defined as the pressure that, if it
acted in the piston during the entire power stroke, would do an
amount of work equal to that actually done on the piston.
- The work for one cycle is found by multiplying this mean
effective pressure by the area of the piston (minus the area of the
rod on the crank end of a double-acting engine) and by the stroke.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
Ideal cycle for the simple gas turbine.
Comp Turb
Comb
Chamber
2 3
1 4
W
net
Fuel

Comp Turb
Comb
Chamber
2 3
1 4
W
net
Heat
Exchanger
Q
H
Q
L
Open Cycle
Closed Cycle
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1 /
1 /
1 1 1
2 3 2
1 4 1
2 3
1 4
th

= =
T T T
T T T
T T C
T T C
q
q
p
p
H
L
q
The efficiency of the air-standard Brayton cycle is found as
follows:
( ) ( )
( )
( ) k k
k k k k
P P
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
P
P
P
P
/ 1
1 2
2
1
th
1
4
2
3
1
4
2
3
1
2
4
3
1 /
4
3
1 /
1
2
1
2
4
3
/
1
1 1
1 1 and
that however, note, We

= =
= = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
q
The efficiency is a
function of the isentropic
pressure ratio.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.1, p. 425:
In an air-standard Brayton cycle the air enters the compressor
at 0.1 MPa and 15
o
C. The pressure leaving the compresor is
1.0 MPa, and the maximum temperature in the cycle is 1100
o
C.
Determine
1. The pressure and temperature at each point in the cycle.
2. The compressor work, turbine work, and cycle efficiency.
Consider the compressor, the turbine, and the high-temperature
and low-temperature heat exchangers in turn.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.1, p. 425:

Comp Turb
Comb
Chamber
2 3
0.1 MPa, 15
o
C
4
W
net
Heat
Exchanger
Q
H
Q
L
1
1.0 MPa 1100
o
C
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.2, p. 426:
Consider a gas turbine with air entering the compressor under
the same conditions as in Ex. 12.1 and leaving at a pressure of
1.0 MPa. The maximum temperature is 1100
o
C. Assume a
compressor efficiency of 80%, a turbine efficiency of 85%,
and a pressure drop between the compressor and turbine of 15
kPa. Determine the compressor work, turbine work, and cycle
efficiency.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
T T
T T

h h
h h

s
c
s
c

=
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.2, p. 426:

Comp Turb
Comb
Chamber
2 3
0.1 MPa, 15
o
C
4
W
net
Heat
Exchanger
Q
H
Q
L
1
1.0 MPa 1100
o
C, (P
2
-drop)
s
t
s
t
T T
T T

h h
h h

4 3
4 3
4 3
4 3

=
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Simple Gas-Turbine Cycle with a
Regenerator
The efficiency of the gas-turbine cycle may be improved by
introducing a regenerator.
Comp Turb
Comb
Chamber
2
3
1
4
W
net
Regenerator
y
x
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Simple Gas-Turbine with Regenerator
( ) ( )
4 3 3
th
and T T C w T T C q
q
w w
q
w
p t x p H
H
c t
H
net
= =
+
= = q
The efficiency of this cycle with regeneration is found as
follows:
But for an ideal regenerator, T
4
= T
x
, and therefore q
H
= w
t
.
Consequently,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
| |
( )
( )
| |
( )
3
2
/ 1
1
2
3
1
/ 1
2 1 3
/ 1
1 2 1
th
3 4 3
1 2 1
4 3
1 2
th
1 1
/ 1
1 /
1
/ 1
1 /
1 1 1
T
T
P
P
T
T
P P T
P P T
T T T
T T T
T T C
T T C
w
w
k k
k k
k k
p
p
t
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

= =

q
q
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Simple Gas-Turbine with Regenerator
Thus, for the ideal cycle with regeneration, the thermal
efficiency depends not only on the pressure ratio but also on
the ratio of the minimum and maximum temperature.
A higher efficiency can be achieved by using a regenerator
with a greater heat-transfer area, however, this also increases
the pressure drop, which represents a loss, and both the
pressure drop and the regenerator efficiency must be
considered in determining which regenerator gives maximum
thermal efficiency for the cycle.
- From an economic point of view, the cost of the regenerator
must be weighed against the savings that can be effected by its
use.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Simple Gas-Turbine with Regenerator
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.3, p. 431:
If an ideal regenerator is incorporated into the cycle of Ex.
12.1, determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Comp Turb
Comb
Chamber
2
3
1
4
W
net
Regenerator
y
x
Q
H
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Ericsson Cycle
It is found that the isothermal process would be preferable
to the adiabatic process on both the compressor and turbine.
It consists of two reversible, constant-pressure processes
and two-reversible constant-temperature processes.
- The Brayton cycle, being the idealized model for the gas-
turbine power plant, has a reversible, adiabatic compressor and
a reversible, adiabatic turbine.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Ericsson Cycle
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.4, p. 431:
An air-standard cycle has the same states given in Ex. 12.1. In
this cycle, however, the compressor and turbine are both
reversible, isothermal processes. Calculate the compressor
work and the turbine work, and compare with those of Ex.
12.1.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Ericsson Cycle
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.4, p. 431:

Comp Turb
Comb
Chamber
2 3
0.1 MPa, 15
o
C
4
W
net
Heat
Exchanger
Q
H
Q
L
1
1.0 MPa 1100
o
C
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Cycle for Jet Propulsion
In this cycle, the work done by the turbine is just sufficient
to drive the compressor.
- The gases are expanded in the turbine to a pressure for which
the turbine work is just equal to the compressor work.
The exhaust pressure of the turbine will then be greater
than that of the surroundings, and the gas can be expanded in
a nozzle to the pressure of the surroundings.
- Since the gases leave at a high velocity, the change in
momentum that the gases undergo gives a thrust to the aircraft
in which the engine is installed.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Cycle for Jet Propulsion
The principles governing this cycle follow from the analysis
of the Brayton cycle plus that for a reversible, adiabatic
nozzle.
Comp Turb
Burner
2 3
1 4 5
Nozzle
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Cycle for Jet Propulsion
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.5, p. 435:
Consider an ideal jet propulsion cycle in which air enters the
compressor at 0.1 MPa and 15
o
C. The pressure leaving the
compressor is 1.0 MPa, and the maximum temperature is
1100
o
C. The air expands in the turbine to a pressure at which
the turbine work is just equal to the compressor work. On
leaving the turbine, the air expands in a nozzle to 0.1 MPa.
The process is reversible and adiabatic. Determine the velocity
of the air leaving the nozzle.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Cycle for Jet Propulsion
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.5, p. 435:

Comp Turb
Burner
2 3
1 4 5
Nozzle
0.1 MPa, 15
o
C
1.0 MPa 1100
o
C
0.1 MPa
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Refrigeration Cycle
The reverse of the Brayton cycle, and it is used in practice in
the liquefaction of air and other gases and also in certain
special situations that require refrigeration, such as aircraft
cooling systems.
Expander Compressor
3 2
4
1
W
net
Q
H
Q
L
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Refrigeration Cycle
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
4 3 1 2
4 1
4 3 1 2
4 1
net
T T C T T C
T T C
h h h h
h h
w w
q
w
q
P P
P
E C
L L


~


=
+
= = |
The COP of the air-standard refrigeration cycle involves the
net work between the compressor and expander work terms:
( ) ( )
( )
1 2
/ 1
1
2
1 4
2 3
1
2
4 3 1 2
4 1
1 /
4
3
4
3
1 /
1
2
1
2
/ ration, pressure the where ;
1
1
1
1
1
/ 1
/ 1
1
and
: processes isentropic two for the relations power the Writing
P P r
r
T
T
T T
T T
T
T
T T T T
T T
T
T
P
P
T
T
P
P
p
k k
p
k k k k
=

=
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

|
|
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Refrigeration Cycle
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.6, p. 438:
Consider the simple air-standard refrigeration cycle where air
enters the compressor at 0.1 Mpa and -20
o
C and leaves at 0.5
Mpa. Air enters the expander at 15
o
C. Determine
1. The COP of this cycle.
2. The rate at which air must enter the compressor to
provide 1 kW of refrigeration.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Air-Standard Refrigeration Cycle
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Ex. 12.6, p. 438:

Expander Compressor
3 2
4
1
W
net
Q
H
Q
L
0.1 MPa, 15
o
C
0.5 MPa 15
o
C
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Piston Cylinder Power Cycles
Otto Cycle
Diesel Cycle
Stirling Cycle
Atkinson Cycle
Miller Cycle
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Power Cylinder Power Cycles
The Otto Cycle
Approximates a spark-ignition internal combustion engine.
P
v
1
4
3
2
T
s
1
4
3
2
s = const
s = const
v = const
v = const
The air-standard Otto cycle.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
The Otto Cycle
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
4
2
1
1
1
2
1
th
1
4
2
3
4
3
1
1
4
1
2
1
1
2
2 3 2
1 4 1
th
2 3
1 4
th
ratio n compressio where
1
1 1 1 and

at further th note We
1 /
1 /
1
1 1
V
V
V
V
r
r
r
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
V
V
V
V
T
T
T T T
T T T
T T mC
T T mC
Q
Q
Q
Q Q
v
k
v
k
v
k k
v
v
H
L
H
L H
= = =
= = =
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

= =

q
q
q
The efficiency of this cycle is found as follows, assuming
constant specific heat of air:
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Power Cylinder Power Cycles
The Diesel Cycle
The ideal cycle for the diesel engine, which is called the
compression ignition engine.
P
v
1
4
3
2
T
s
1
4
3
2
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1 /
1 /
1 1 1 1
2 3 2
1 4 1
2 3
1 4
th

= =
T T kT
T T T
T T C
T T C
Q
Q
p
v
H
L
q
The air-standard Diesel cycle.
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Power Cylinder Power Cycles
The Stirling Cycle
Stirling cycles engines have been developed in recent years
as external combustion engines with regeneration
The air-standard Stirling cycle.
P
v
1
4
3
2
T = const
T = const
T
s
1
4 3
2
v = const
v = const
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Power Cylinder Power Cycles
The Atkinson Cycle
A cycle slightly different from the Otto cycle that has a
higher expansion ratio than the compression ratio allowing
more work to be extracted.
P
v
1
4
3
2
T
s
1
4
3
2
s
s
v
P =const
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
Power Cylinder Power Cycles
The Miller Cycle
Modification of Atkinson cycle using a supercharger, which
approximates the Ford Escape and the Toyota Prius hybrid
car engines.
P
v
1
4
3
2
T
s
1
5
3
2
s =const
s
v
v =const
5
4
P
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
See you in TAIWAN!
END
Thermodynamics Research Laboratory
Mapa Institute of Technology
Chung Yuan Christian University
School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
LEARNING TASK No. 5
Solve Homework Problems
No. 12.15 (p. 455) and 12.41 (p. 457)