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Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
I ntegrated Optical Devices
Integrated optical wavelength multiplexing /
demultiplexing devices are the optical equivalent of
integrated electronic circuits.
Typically, they consist of optical waveguides-core
material surrounded by cladding material-layered
onto silicon or LiNb substrates using many of the
techniques adopted by the large-scale integration
manufacturers.
The end result is a small package containing many
optical components-usually interacting-that can be
manufactured in significant quantities using totally
automatic techniques.
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
In its simplest form, the biconic tapered coupler
consists of a pair of single mode optical fibers that
have been fused together lengthwise.
Signal light transmitted in a fiber-core mode that
arrives at the fused region from one of the fibers on
the left-hand side is redistributed into a variety of
cladding modes as it crosses the joint.
As the fibers once again separate, cladding modes
reconvert to core modes in each of the output (right-
hand side) fibers. The result is an almost loss-less
coupler or splitter.
Fused Biconic Tapered (FBT)
Devices
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
If two such devices are connected in series (Fig. 8.13),
the input energy is split between the two outputs,
depending on wavelength, with a periodicity that is set
when the device is manufactured.
Two frequencies that are present together on an input
fiber can leave the device on separate fibers (the 2nd
input fiber is not used).
Figure 8.13 The fused fiber redistribution
the input signal to the device.
Fused Biconic Tapered (FBT)
Devices
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
8.6 Optical Add/Drop
Multiplexers
(OADMs)
Add/drop multiplexers are assembled using various
spectral separation techniques to combine multiple
optical signals onto a single transmission medium or
to extract these signals after transmission.
In many parts of a network, one may not want to
combine or disassemble the entire channel structure,
but merely add a single channel to it or extract a
single channel from it with an add/drop multiplexer.
An optical add/drop multiplexer performs this
operation without the need to convert the signals in
all the channels to electrical form and back again.
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Figure 8.14 Typical representation of on OADM device.
8.6 Optical Add/Drop
Multiplexers
(OADMs)
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
8.7 Optical Amplifiers
An Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) consists
of a length of erbium-doped fiber, so that it can
convert energy from separately provided pump
radiation to the wavelengths applied as signals, thus
effectively amplifying them.
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
8.7 Optical Amplifiers
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
EDFAs must be pumped to amplify the incoming signal.
Both 980 nm and 1480 nm lasers are suitable for EDFA
pumping
Both 980 nm and 1480 nm wavelengths correspond to the
energy levels of excited ions and can be well absorbed by
the erbium-doped fiber.
Several pumping schemes, shown in Figure 8.16, are
possible at either wavelength.
Pump Lasers
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Pump Lasers
Figure 8.16a-b-c:
Typical EDFA
designs with
various pumping
schemes;
Figure 8.16d:
using a dispersion
compensation
device (DCD).
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
The forward pumping direction provides the lowest noise.
In fact, the noise is sensitive to the gain and the gain is the
highest when the input power is the lowest, as is the case
close to the input of the EDFA.
Backward pumping provides the highest saturated output
power, as shown in Figure 8.17.
Figure 8.17 Gain
performance regions
of an EDFA.
Pump Lasers
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Pumping at 1480 nm is usually used in the reverse
direction and 980 nm pumping in the forward
direction to make the best use of the strengths of each.
The 1480 nm pump has a higher quantum efficiency
but a somewhat higher noise figure, whereas the 980
nm pump can provide a near quantum limited noise
figure.
Bidirectional pumping has the advantage that the
population inversion, and hence the small-signal gain,
is relatively uniform along the entire amplifier length.
Pump Lasers
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Typically, a single-stage pumped EDFA can provide
a maximum of about +16 dBm output power in the
saturation region or a noise figure of 5 to 6 dB in the
small-signal region.
A typical EDFA has a small-signal gain that is not
uniform across the spectrum. There is a broad peak
in gain at 1535 nm and a relatively flat zone from
1540 nm to 1560 nm.
It is difficult to achieve high gain, low noise, and high
pumping efficiency simultaneously. The limitation is
mainly imposed by the ASE traveling backward
toward the pump and depleting the pump power.
An internal isolator can reduce this problem.
Gain Spectrum and Noise
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Gain Spectrum and Noise
The gain spectrum of EDFA doped with Ge is
quite broad and has a double-peak structure.
The addition of Al to the fiber core broadens the
gain spectrum even more.
The gain spectrum of alumino-silicate glasses has
roughly equal contributions from homogeneous
and inhomogeneous broadening mechanisms,
contributing up to 35 nm.
The gain spectrum of EDFA depends on the
amplifier length because both the absorption and
emission cross sections having different spectral
characteristics.
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Gain Spectrum and Noise
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Various techniques have been proposed to flatten the
gain and expand the DWDM amplification window to
40 nm or more.
Gain flattening is also necessary to eliminate the
distorted amplification of signals through cascaded
in-line EDFAs.
There are devices which stretch the gain window to
about 1610 nm, providing the capability for
bidirectional DWDM transmission in different non-
interfering windows, and also potentially relaxing the
requirements for more densely packed DWDM.
Gain Spectrum and Noise
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Today's EDFAs use internal components to promote
reliable operation. Such components include isolators
to suppress the build-up of back-propagating ASE, to
prevent sensitivity to any reflections from a
downstream in-line EDFA, or to prevent any residual
pump energy emanating from this downstream EDFA.
Other components may include dispersion
compensation elements, especially between the stages
of a double-stage EDFA, to equalize the propagation
delay between the various wavelengths in a DWDM
multichannel signal.
Multi-Channel Amplifications
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
PUMP
PUMP
Input
Signal
Output
Signal
Er
3+
Doped
Fiber
Optical
Isolator
Optical
Isolator
Optical
Isolator
1st Active
Stage
Co-pumped
2nd Active Stage
Counter-pumped
Er
3+
Doped
Fiber
Multi-Channel Amplifications
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Multi-Channel Amplifications
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Due to 10 ms carrier lifetime, the gain of EDFAs
can not be modulated (carrier-density modulation)
at frequencies much than 10 kHz.
The main practical limitation of an EDFA stems
from the spectral nonuniformity of the amplifier
gain. Even a 0.2-dB gain difference grows to 20 dB
over a chain of 100 in-line amplifiers.
The entire BW of 35-40 nm can be used if the gain
spectrum is flattened by introducing wavelength-
selective losses through an optical filter.
L-band: 1570-1610nm, C-band: 1530-1570nm,
S-band: 1470-1520nm
Multi-Channel Amplifications
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Multi-Channel Amplifications
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
The advantages of EDFAs for WDM systems were
demonstrated as early as 1990. By 2001, transmission
at 120 x 20 Gbps over 6200 km has been realized within
the C band using EDFAs every 50 km.
Polarization multiplexing: the adjacent channels were
orthogonally polarized for reducing the nonlinear effects
resulting from a relatively small spacing of 42 GHz.
FWM can be avoided by using dispersion management
such that the GVD is locally high all along the fiber but
quite small on average. But it also enhanced in L-band
amplifiers due to their long lengths (> 100m)
SPM and XPM lead to considerable power fluctuations
within an L-band amplifier due to the relatively small
effective core area.
Multi-Channel Amplifications
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Other Optical Amplification Techniques
Other optical amplifiers have also been proposed,
both to relax the restrictions of transmitting only in
the narrow 1550nm band and to eliminate the relative
complexity and consequent cost of EDFA designs.
In one approach, praseodymium replaces erbium as a
dopant to provide amplification in the 1310 nm region;
the resulting amplifier is usually called a PDFFA
(praseodymium-doped fluoride-based fiber amplifier).
These units provide low-distortion and low-noise figures,
although they are not as energy-efficient as conventional
EDFAs. Saturation output power is high and, like
EDFAs, gain is independent of polarization.
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Other host-dopant combinations under study include
the fluoride-based thulium-doped fiber amplifier
(TDFA) with two spectral operating regions: 1460 nm
and 1650 nm.
The advantages of TDFA include high saturation
output power, polarization-independent gain, and a
low-noise figure. Ytterbium is also used in EDFAs
with very high output power.
Stimulated Raman scattering, which uses the silica
fiber itself as the gain medium, offers great flexibility
in choosing the wavelength of the amplification region,
and the mechanism is inherently low-noise.
Other Optical Amplification Techniques
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Raman amplifier is especially useful for upgrading
existing links to higher channel counts without
having to replace already-installed EDFAs.
However, Raman amplifiers exhibit significant
cross gain modulation, limiting their use to either
a single-signal channel or to high channel count
DWDM signals.
Additionally, Raman amplifiers have some
linearity and polarization-dependence problems
Other Optical Amplification Techniques
Prof. J .F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communications Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs), in which
photon emission is stimulated by electron-hole
recombination in a semiconductor through direct
injection of current, are also being developed.
SOAs have attracted considerable interest due to
their promise of high performance and flexibility in
operating wavelength, albeit with a high noise figure
(typically more than 5 to 6 dB above that of EDFAs).
Like Raman amplifiers, SOAs exhibit a significant
cross gain modulation. SOAs also present fiber-
coupling problems because waveguide dimensions best
suited lo semiconductor optical amplification differ
from those of optical fibers.
Other Optical Amplification Techniques