Aoptics-1-Wave Fronts

Applied optics
Wave fronts
Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Geometrical Optics
In describing the propagation of
light as a wave we need to
understand:
wavefronts: a surface passing
through points of a wave that
have the same phase and
amplitude.
rays: a ray describes the
direction of wave propagation.
A ray is a vector perpendicular
to the wavefront.

Wavefronts
• We can chose to associate
the wavefronts with the
instantaneous surfaces
where the wave is at its
maximum.
• Wavefronts travel outward
from the source at the speed
of light: c.
• Wavefronts propagate
perpendicular to the local
wavefront surface.

Light Rays
• The propagation of the
wavefronts can be
described by light rays.
• In free space, the light rays
travel in straight lines,
perpendicular to the
wavefronts.

The ray approximation in
geometric optics
• Geometric optics: The study of the
propagation of light.
• Ray approximation: In the ray
approximation, we assume that a
wave moving through a medium
travels in a straight line in the direction
of its rays.

Huygens’ principle
 Huygens’ principle
Every point of a wave front may be considered the source of secondary
wavelets that spread out in all directions with a speed equal to the speed
of propagation of the wave.
Plane waves

Huygens’ principle (cont’d)
 Huygens’ principle for plane wave
• At t = 0, the wave front is

indicated by the plane AA’
• The points are representative
sources for the wavelets
• After the wavelets have moved
a distance s∆ t, a new plane
BB’ can be drawn tangent to
the wavefronts

 Huygens’ principle for spherical wave (cont’d)
• The inner arc represents part

of the spherical wave
• The points are representative
points where wavelets are
propagated
• The new wavefront is tangent
at each point to the wavelet

 Huygens’ principle for law of reflection
• The law of reflection can be

derived from Huygen’s
Principle
• AA’ is a wave front of incident
light
• The reflected wave front is CD
• Triangle ADC is congruent to

triangle AA’C
• Angles θ 1 = θ 1’
• This is the law of reflection
 Huygens’ principle for law of refraction
• In time ∆ t, ray 1 moves from A to

B and ray 2 moves from A’ to C
• From triangles AA’C and ACB, all  = AC
the ratios in the law of refraction
can be found:
n1 sin θ 1 = n2 sin θ 2
sin θ1 = v1∆t; sin θ 2 = v2 ∆t

v1∆t v ∆t c c
→ = 2 , v1 = , v2 =
sin θ1 sin θ 2 n1 n2

Reflection
• Reflection: When a light ray traveling in

one medium encounters a boundary with
another medium, part of the incident light
is reflected.
– Specular reflection: Reflection of light from a
smooth surface, where the reflected rays are
all parallel to each other.
– Diffuse reflection: Reflection from any rough
surface, where the reflected rays travel in
random directions.
– we use the term reflection to mean specular
reflection.

Reflection and refraction
 Reflection (cont’d)

The Law of reflection
• Law of reflection: The angle of reflection
equals the angle of incidence: θ 1’ = θ 1.
• Some definitions:
– Normal: The normal is a line drawn
perpendicular to the surface at the
point where the incident ray strikes.
– Angle of reflection and incidence:
Measured from the normal to the
reflected and incident rays,
respectively.

Example : The double-reflected light ray
• Two mirrors make an angle of 120° with
each other. A ray is incident on mirror M1
at an angle of 65° to the normal. Find the
direction of the ray after it is reflected
from mirror M2.
α =2β
β
α

Practical applications of reflection
• Retroreflection: If the angle between the two mirrors is 90°, the

reflected beam will return to the source parallel to its original
path.

Refraction
• Refraction: When a ray of light traveling through
a transparent medium encounters a boundary
leading into another transparent medium, part of
the ray enters the second medium. The part that
enters the second medium is bent at the
boundary and is said to be refracted.
• sinθ 2 / sinθ 1 = v2 / v1
θ 1 and θ 2 are the angle of incidence and
angle of refraction, respectively.
– v1 and v2 are the speed of the light in the first
and second medium, respectively.
• The path of a light ray through a refracting
All rays and the surface is reversible.
normal lie in the
same plane.
Reflection by plane surfaces
y
r1 = (x,y,z) z
r2= (-x,y,z)
r1 = (x,y,z)
x
y
r3=(-x,-y,z)
r4=(-x-y,-z)
x
r2 = (x,-y,z)
Law of Reflection
r1 = (x,y,z) → r2 = (x,-y,z)
Reflecting through (x,z) plane
Refraction by plane interface
& Total internal reflection
n2
θ2
θ2
n1 > n2
θ1 θ θ1 θ1 n1
θ1 C
P
Snell’s law
n1sinθ1=n2sinθ2
Examples of prisms and total
internal reflection
45o
45o
45o
Totally reflecting prism

45o
Porro Prism
Total internal reflection
 Total internal reflection
n2
Since sin θ1 = sin θ 2 , sin θ 2 = 1 when n2 / n1 > 1 & n2 = n1 sin θ1.
n1
When this happens, θ 2 is 90o and θ1 is called critical angle. Furthermore
when θ1 > θ crit , all the light is reflected (total internal reflection).

Total internal reflection
 Optical fibers

Index of Refraction and Snell’s Law of
Refraction
• Index of refraction n of a medium: n ≡ c/v
– c = 3 x 108 m/s: speed of light in vacuum.
– v: speed of light in the medium; v < c.
– n > 1 for any medium and n = 1 for vacuum (or
approximately in air).
• Snell’s law of refraction: n1sinθ 1=n2sinθ 2
• As light travels from one medium to another, its
frequency does not change but its wavelength
does.
λ 1n1 = λ 2n2, or λ 1/λ 2 = v1/v2.
• Light slows on entering a medium – Huygens
• Also, if n → ∞ ν = 0
• i.e. light stops in its track !!!!!
Reflections, Refractive offset
• Let’s consider a thick piece of glass (n = 1.5), and the light paths
associated with it
– reflection fraction = [(n1 – n2)/(n1 + n2)]2
– using n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.0 (air), R = (0.5/2.5)2 = 0.04 = 4%
n1 = 1.5 n2 = 1.0
incoming ray
(100%)
image looks displaced
due to jog
96%
8% reflected in two
reflections (front & back)
4%
92% transmitted
Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd0.16%
4% University
Atmospheric Refraction and Sunsets
• Light rays from the sun are

bent as they pass into the
atmosphere
• It is a gradual bend because
the light passes through
layers of the atmosphere
– Each layer has a slightly
different index of refraction
• The Sun is seen to be above
the horizon even after it has
fallen below it

Mirages
• A mirage can be observed

when the air above the
ground is warmer than the
air at higher elevations
• The rays in path B are
directed toward the ground
and then bent by refraction
• The observer sees both an
upright and an inverted
image

Example: depth of a swimming pool
Pool depth s = 2m
person looks straight
down.
the depth is judged by
θ 2 the apparent size of
some object of length
L at the bottom of the
pool (tiles etc.)
θ 1 s`is reduced distance

na sin θ1 = sin θ 2
L
tan θ1 =
s
L L
tan θ 2 = =
s − ∆s s '
→ s tan θ1 = ( s − ∆s ) tan θ 2
θ
2
for small angles: tan ->sin
θ
1
s sin θ1 = ( s − ∆s ) sin θ 2
s sin θ1 = ( s − ∆s ) na sin θ1
L na − 1 1
∆s = s = (2 m) = 50 cm.
na 4

Example: Flat refracting surface
• The image formed by a flat
refracting surface is on the
same side of the surface as
the object
– The image is virtual
– The image forms between
the object and the surface
– The rays bend away from
the normal since n1 > n2
L
n1 n2 n2
= − ⇒ s' = − s s’
s s' n1
| s ' | tan θ1 = L, | s | tan θ 2 = L → s ' tan θ1 = s tan θ 2 s
tan θ ≈ sin θ ≈ θ for θ << 1
⇒ s ' sin θ1 = s sin θ 2
⇒ n1 s ' = n2 s ( n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2 )
Prism example
• Light is refracted twice – once entering and once leaving.
• Since n decreases for increasing λ , a spectrum emerges...
Analysis: (60° glass prism in air)
sin θ 1 = n2 sin θ 2
n1 = 1 n2 sin θ 3 = sin θ 4
60°
Example: θ 1 = 30°
θ1 α θ2  sin(30) 
θ 2 = sin −1   = 19.5
o
β  1.5 
θ3 θ4 θ 3 = (60 o − θ 2 ) = 40.5o
n2 = 1.5 θ 4 = sin −1 (1.5 sin θ 3 ) = 76.9 o
α +β +60o =
θ 3 = 90° - β α = 90° - θ 180
2
o → θ 3 = 60° - θ 2

Prisms
 Applications of prism
• A prism and the total reflection

can alter the direction of travel
of a light beam.
“Diversion, Deviation”
• All hot low-pressure gases emit

their own characteristic spectra.
A prism spectrometer is used
to identify gases.
“Dispersion”

Dispersion &Deviation
n1<n2
n1 n2
Little High
dispersion dispersion
High Low
deviation
deviation

Angular Dispersion
A hollow 600 prism is filled with

carbon disulfide, whose index of
refraction for blue is 1.652, for red
light is 1.618 what is angular
δ
dispersion 1
sin (σ + δ )
n prism 2
=
n0 1
sin α
2
n1=1.652 n2=1.618
δ 1=51.380 δ 2=48.00
δ 1-δ 2 =3.380 angular
dispersion

Deviation & wavenumber in prism
• Deviation angle & λ
a∆
t1 d D
b A`
A a A``
t2 e
c
B
b+nt1+d=c+nt2+e dD/dn = (t2-t1)/a
b+(n+ ∆ n)t1+d+a ∆ D=c+ (n+ ∆ n)t2+e dD/dn =t/a

∆ nt1+a ∆ D=∆ n t2 dD/dλ =(dD/dn)(dn/dλ )=(t/a)
(dn/dλ )
∆ D/ ∆ =(t2-t1)/a
(dn/dλ
Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd)=?
University
Deviation angle & λ
n = A+B/λ 2
dn/dλ = -2B/λ 3
dD/dλ = t/a dn/dλ
dD/dλ = t/a(-2B/λ 3)

Dispersive power & Abbe`s nunber
n f − nc
Dispersive power
nD − 1
nD − 1
= Abbe`s − number = ν Low
n f − nC dispersion,
low refractive
index

Refractive indices of Crown and
flint glasses
Fraunhofer line color λ (nm) n crown n flint
F Blue 486.1 1.5293 1.7378

D Yellow 589.3 1.5230 1.7200
C Red 656.3 1.55204 1.7130
ν Crown ν
=59 flint=29

Dispersing prisms
• Achromatic prism:
• Deviates light but gives no dispersion
λ 1
λ 2
Dispersion for λ 1 and λ 2 is

zero
Dispersing prisms
• Direct-vision prism
λ 1
λ
λ
2
Direct vision for wavelength λ

example
• Assume that 140 is the apex angle of a crown glass prism. What
should be the apex angle of a flint prism:
(a)-if the combination of both is to be achromatic for blue and red?
(b)-if the prism is to have no deviation for yellow?
Solution (a)
δ F = σ 1(nf - 1)
δ C = σ 1(nc- 1) → δ f - δ c = σ 1 (nf - nc) mean dispersion of prism
For the combination to be achromatic,
(σ 1)(n1f - n1c ) + (σ 2)(n2f - n2c )=0
(14)(1.5293-1.5204)+ (σ 2)(1.7378-1.7130)=0
σ 2= -50

Example (cont.)
• (b) for the direct-vision prism
δ 1=σ 1(n1D-1)
δ 2=σ 2(n2D-1)
σ 1(n1D-1)= σ 2(n2D-1)
14(1.5230-1)= σ 2(1.7200-1)
σ 2=10.20

Image manipulation by reflection prisms
Right angle prism

Image manipulation by reflection prisms
Dove prism

Dispersion
 Dispersion
• The index of refraction of a material

depends on wavelength as shown
on the right. This is called dispersion.
• It is also true that, although the speed

of light in vacuum does not depends
on wavelength, in a material, wave
speed depends on wavelength.

Diversion & dispersion
 Examples

Resolving power of a prism
F T
∆
d s
W ∆α
d
n ∆
α λ +∆ λ
b
FT+TW=nb λ
∆ α = λ /d
FT+ Tw - ∆ s= (n- ∆ n) λ /d = (b/d)(dn/dλ )∆ λ
b
(∆ λ )min = λ /b(dn/dλ )
∆ s=b ∆ n
R=λ /(∆ λ )min = b(dn/dλ )
∆ s=b (dn/dλ ) ∆ λ
∆ α =∆ s/d=(b/d)
(dn/dλ )∆ λ
Resolving power of a prism (example)
• A prism made from flint glass with a base of 5 cm. find the resolving
power of the prism at λ =550 nm.
• solution
∆ n/∆ λ =(nf-nD)/(λ f-λ D)= (1.7328-1.7205)/(486-587)=-1.9x10 -4 nm -1
R = b(dn/dλ ) = (0.05x10 9nm)(-1.9x10 -4 nm -1) = 5971
(∆ λ )min=λ /R =5500A0/5971 ≈ 1 A0

• Exercises

Example
Exercises
The prism shown in the figure has a refractive
index of 1.66, and the angles A are 25.00 . Two
light rays m and n are parallel as they enter
the prism. What is the angle between them m A
they emerge?
n A
Solution
na sin θ a −1 1.66 sin 25.0°

na sin θ a = nb sin θ b → θ b = sin (−1
) = sin ( ) = 44.6°.
nb 1.00
Therefore the angle below the horizon is θb − 25.0° = 44.6° − 25.0° = 19.6°,
and thus the angle between the two emerging beams is 39.2°.

Example
Exercises
Light is incident in air at an angle
on the upper surface of a transparent θa
plate, the surfaces of the plate being n θ b'
plane and parallel to each other. (a)
t n’ Q
Prove that θ a = θ a' . (b) Show that this
is true for any number of different parallel
plates. (c) Prove that the lateral displacement n θb P
D of the emergent beam is given by the
sin(θ a − θ b' )
θ a' d
relation: d =t ,
cos θ b'
where t is the thickness of the plate. (d) A ray of light is incident at an angle
of 66.00 on one surface of a glass plate 2.40 cm thick with an index of
refraction 1.80. The medium on either side of the plate is air. Find the lateral
Displacement between the incident and emergent rays.

Problem
Exercises
Solution
θa
(a) For light in air incident on a parallel-faced n θ b'
plate, Snell’s law yields:
n sin θ a = n' sin θb' = n' sin θb = n sin θ a' → sin θ a = sin θ a' → θ a = θ a' . t n’ Q
(b) Adding more plates just adds extra steps
in the middle of the above equation that P
n θb
always cancel out. The requirement of
parallel faces ensures that the angle θ n = θ n' L θ a' d
and the chain of equations can continue.
(c) The lateral displacement of the beam can be calculated using geometry:
t t sin(θ a − θ b' )
d = L sin(θ a − θ ), L =
'
b →d = .
cos θ b' cos θ b'
(d) n sin θ a sin 66.0°

θ b' = sin −1 ( ) = sin −1 ( ) = 30.5°
n' 1.80
( 2.40cm ) sin(66.0° − 30.5°)
→d = = 1.62 cm.
cos 30.5°

Aoptics-1-Wave Fronts

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Aoptics-1-Wave Fronts

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Applied optics

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• At t = 0, the wave front is

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• The inner arc represents part

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• The law of reflection can be

• Triangle ADC is congruent to

• In time ∆ t, ray 1 moves from A to

sin θ1 = v1∆t; sin θ 2 = v2 ∆t

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• Reflection: When a light ray traveling in

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• Retroreflection: If the angle between the two mirrors is 90°, the

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Totally reflecting prism

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• Light rays from the sun are

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• A mirage can be observed

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Analysis: (60° glass prism in air)

n2 = 1.5 θ 4 = sin −1 (1.5 sin θ 3 ) = 76.9 o

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• A prism and the total reflection

• All hot low-pressure gases emit

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

A hollow 600 prism is filled with

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• Deviation angle & λ

b+(n+ ∆ n)t1+d+a ∆ D=c+ (n+ ∆ n)t2+e dD/dn =t/a

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Fraunhofer line color λ (nm) n crown n flint

F Blue 486.1 1.5293 1.7378

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dispersion for λ 1 and λ 2 is

Direct vision for wavelength λ

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Right angle prism

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

• The index of refraction of a material

• It is also true that, although the speed

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

Dr. G. Mirjalili, physics Dept. Yazd University

∆ n/∆ λ =(nf-nD)/(λ f-λ D)= (1.7328-1.7205)/(486-587)=-1.9x10 -4 nm -1

R = b(dn/dλ ) = (0.05x10 9nm)(-1.9x10 -4 nm -1) = 5971