Chapter 2

More on Wireless Ethernet, Token

Ring, FDDI
Professor Rick Han
University of Colorado at Boulder
rhan@cs.colorado.edu
 Announcements
• Programming assignment #1 is now available
on Web site, due Feb. 6
• Homework #2 should be online by Friday
night
• This week’s lectures should be online by
Friday night
• Next, Chapter 2, more on Wireless
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 Program #1: TCP/UDP Ports
• Ports are used at transport layer 4 to
differentiate/demultiplex between incoming
traffic from different applications
Source ports on Host A Destination ports on Host B
App 1 App 2 App 2 App 1
5200 5307 7447 6010
• A port is like a
mailbox
UDP UDP
• Need ports in
both hosts so
IP ACKs know where IP
to go
Link/MAC • Can also send data Link/MAC
in both directions
Phys Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
Phys
 Program #1: TCP/UDP Ports (2)
• Application source & dest ports > 5000
• Web/HTTP uses well-known reserved port 80
Source port on Host A Destination port on Host B
For Stop-and-Wait Client For Stop-and-Wait Server
5200 8110
• Normally, link
layer protocol
UDP UDP
doesn’t use ports
IP • We’re emulating IP
layer 2 from
above layer 4, so
Link/MAC we have to specify Link/MAC
ports
Phys Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
Phys
 Announcements
• Programming assignment #1 is now available
on Web site, due Feb. 6
• Homework #2 should be online by Friday
night
• This week’s lectures should be online by
Friday night
• Next, Chapter 2, more on Wireless
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 Recap of Previous Lecture
• Multiple Access Protocols
• Designed for shared-media links
• Channel reservation protocols: TDMA, FDMA,
CDMA
• Random access protocols: CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
• Random Access Protocols
• ALOHA, slotted ALOHA – packet collisions
• CSMA – “listen before you talk”
• CSMA/CD – “listen while you talk” Ethernet
• CSMA/CA – 802.11 wireless Ethernet

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 802.11 MAC Layer
• Uses CSMA/CA = CSMA + Collision Avoidance
• Hidden terminal RTS/CTS is required feature but
may be disabled
• exponential backoff also helps avoids collisions
• 802.11’s CSMA/CA is called the Distributed
Coordination Function (DCF)
• Useful to send non-delay-sensitive data such as
Web, ftp, email <- asynchronous traffic
• 802.11b’s MAC is ~70% efficient
• slotted ALOHA ~37%
• Ethernet’s efficiency: ~ 1/(1+5Tprop /Ttrans ),
• ~ 70% for common values of prop. delay and max pkt size,
• ->100% for small prop. delays & small pkts

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 802.11 MAC Layer (2)
• Contention in CSMA causes delay
• Point Coordination Function (PCF) Mode gives
delay-sensitive traffic priority over
asynchronous traffic
• Useful for interactive audio/video
• Define a “superframe”. Delay-sensitive traffic
gets access to first part of superframe via
shorter random wait times.
• Inside the first part of superframe, a central PCF
master polls each user with delay-sensitive data
• In second part of superframe, asynchronous data
is carried
• Built on top of DCF
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Physical Layers of 802.11
Variants
• What does 802.11 use for its physical layer?

Original 802.11 Standard

802.11b 802.11a

2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz Infrared 2.4 GHz 5 GHz

Freq. Hop Dir. Seq. 1,2 Mbps Dir. Seq. OFDM
1,2 Mbps 1,2 Mbps 5.5,11 Mbps 6-54 Mbps

Also, 802.11g at 2.4 GHz, OFDM or PBCC, up to 54 Mbps.

802.11a @ 5 GHz ok in U.S., but conflicts abroad
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 802.11b: Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum
• Multiply data bit stream d(t) by a faster
chipping sequence c(t) : BPSK example +1/-1
1 0 0 1 1 0
+1
Data d(t) time
-1
110011101001110010
+1
Chipping
Sequence time
c(t) -1
• Chipping sequence c(t) also called Pseudo-Noise (PN)
spreading sequence depending on usage
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Direct Sequence Sender
1 0 0 1 1 0
+1
Data d(t) time
-1
110011101001110010
+1
Chipping
Sequence time
c(t) -1
+1
d(t)*c(t) time
-1
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Direct Sequence Receiver
+1
Receive
d(t)*c(t) time
-1

110011101001110010
+1
Receiver
also has c(t) time
-1
1 0 0 1 1 0
+1
d(t)*c(t)*c(t)
= Data d(t), since time
c(t)*c(t) = 1! -1 Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Direct Sequence Spreads the
Spectrum
• Benefit of modulating data d(t) by chipping sequence:
spreading the spectrum to improve immunity to noise
and fading Spectrum of data d(t)

frequency
Spectrum of chipping sequence c(t)

frequency
Spectrum of d(t)*c(t)

frequency
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 CDMA via
Direct Sequence
• Each DSSS chipping sequence c(t) can be used
as a code
• In CDMA, assign different DSSS codes to
different hosts:
• Assign code c1(t) between a base station and user 1,
assign code c2(t) between base station and user 2, …
• Base station transmits summed signal:
• d1(t)*c1(t) + d2(t)*c2(t) + …
• Ideally, choose c1(t) to be orthogonal to c2(t)
 ∫ c1(t)*c2(t) =0 (reality: only ~orthogonal)
 In general, ∫ cj(t)*ck(t) =0 for j≠ k
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 CDMA via
Direct Sequence (2)
• At receiver 1, received signal is multiplied by c1(t)
and integrated:
• ∫ {c1(t)*[d1(t)*c1(t) + d2(t)*c2(t) + …]} = ∫ d1(t)
• Can extract data bit sequence d1(t) from ∫ d1(t)
using a threshold detector, and then you’re done!

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 802.11b via
Direct Sequence
• Original 802.11 at 1 Mbps
• used 11 chips/bit (Barker sequence), and BPSK (+1/-
1 signalling) for 11 Mcps, or 11 MHz
• 802.11b is more sophisticated:
• 8 chips per symbol, and 8 bits/symbol, chipping
rate is 11 MHz = 1.375 Msps = 11 Mbps
• 2.4 GHz ISM band has 14 channels (11 in U.S.)
• Each channel occupies 22 Mhz. Within each
channel, uses Direct Sequence CDMA

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 802.11 Channel Allocation
• 2.4 GHz ISM band has 14 channels (11 in U.S.)
• Interference from adjacent Access Points (AP) or
base stations: Only 3 channels (1,6,11) are non-
overlapping
• reuse frequencies in beehive pattern to avoid
degraded throughput
• Interference
from Bluetooth,
microwaves,
garage door
openers –
unlicensed
spectrum!
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 802.11 Modes of Operation
• Infrastructure mode
• Access point acts as gateway to wired Internet
• One-hop wireless access

Internet

Access Point/
Base station
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 802.11 Modes of Operation
• Ad hoc mode
• Group of laptops form isolated wireless LAN – no AP
• Ad hoc meeting in conference room
• One-hop wireless communication
• Not multi-hop

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 802.11a: OFDM
• OFDM = Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing
• Special case of Multi-Carrier Modulation (MCM), or
Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT)
• Divide data bit stream d(t) over different
frequencies. For example:
• Transmit(t) = d1(t)*cos(2π 3000t) + d2(t)*cos
(2π 6000t)
• 48 subcarriers in 802.11a over a 20 MHz channel
• Delivers better performance than DSSS,
especially indoors
• High spectral efficiency, resistance to multipath, …
• Various flavors of
Prof. RickDSL also ofemploy
Han, University Colorado at this
Boulder technique
 Token Ring
• Not very popular, even being phased out at
IBM – primarily of historical interest
• Why did Ethernet win? “Cheaper and good
enough”
• Conceptual Topology of Token Ring:

Token
Ring
Ethernet
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Token Ring (2)
• Links are unidirectional
• Each node has a downstream neighbor and an
upstream neighbor
• Topology resembles N
point-to-point links
forming a ring rather than
continuous wire loop
Token
• but access to ring is
Ring
shared via tokens
• A “token” is a special flag
that circulates around the 010010
ring “Token”
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Token Ring (3)
• Each node receives token, then transmits it to
its downstream neighbor
• Round-robin ensures fairness, as every node
eventually can transmit when it receives token
• Suppose token was
passed from source
to destination rather
than around the ring
as in Token Ring
Token
• some hosts could 010010
Ring
be passed over “Token”
indefinitely –
unfair!
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Token Ring (4)
• When a node has a frame to send, it takes
token, and transmits frame downstream
• Each node receives a
frame and forwards it
downstream
• Destination host saves 1110011010
copy of frame, but keeps Data Frame
forwarding frame.
• Inefficient Token 010010
• Forwarding stops when Ring
frame reaches original “Token”
source

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 Token Ring Example
(3) (2)
1110011010 1110011010
Data Frame Data Frame
(4) Destination Source (1)
Token
1110011010 010010 1110011010
Ring
Data Frame “Token” Data Frame

1110011010 1110011010 (7) Stop Data

Data Frame Data Frame Frame
(5) (6)
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Token Ring’s Robustness To
Failure
• A given node can fail at any time:
• Without the token
• With the token
• If a node fails
without the token: 1110011010
• An electromechnical Data Frame
relay closes at
failing node, keeping
the ring intact Token 010010
Ring
• Data frame “Token”
continues to be
forwarded as before
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Token Ring’s Robustness To
Failure (2)
• In Token Ring, when frame reaches a
destination node, it is marked as read
• When marked-as-read frame reaches sender, it
acts as “ACK” to sender Destination
• If a destination 1110011010
node fails without
the token: Data Frame
• Sender receives
unmarked frame, Token 010010
and can retransmit Ring
“Token”
it later

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 Token Ring’s Robustness To
Failure (3)
• If a node fails with the token, then the ring
must somehow introduce a new token
• After a timeout, in which no token is detected, a
“designated monitor” introduces a new token
• If designated
monitor fails
• Its periodic keep-
alive not detected
• A node sends “claim” Token 010010
token around ring Ring
“Token”
• If claim token
returns to sender,
then sender becomes
“designated Prof.
monitor”
Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 Token Ring : Other Points
• Token Holding Time (THT) by default is 20
ms
• Token Ring data rates are 4 and 16 Mbps
• If a token is held until data frame returns,
then called “delay-release”
• Inefficient, original version of 802.5
• Solution: release token as soon as send has
transmitted data frame
• More efficient, called “early release”, now
supported in later version of 802.5
• Token Rotation Time
<= (# Nodes)*THT + Ring Latency
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 FDDI
• Fiber Distributed Data Interface
• Dual ring topology originally using optical fibers
instead of copper wire
• 100 Mbps
• Second ring helps
with robustness/
fault recovery
FDDI
• Some nodes may
be part of only
one ring: single
attachment
station (SAS)
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
 FDDI (2)
• Recall the inefficiency of Token Ring: frames
are forwarded even after they’ve reached
destination
• Solution: in
FDDI,
destination node
removes frame
from ring Destination
FDDI
1110011010
Data Frame

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder